TCC BIO 2401: Anatomy and Physiology (Test 1)

Anatomy

the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

Physiology

concerns the function of the body

Gross Anatomy

- Study of large structures visible to the naked eye

-regional anatomy

-systemic anatomy

-surface anatomy

Microscopic Anatomy

deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye

-cytology

-histology

-embryology

Describe how form and function are related

form determines function

-principle of complementarity of structure and function

Major Organizational Levels of the Body

1. Atoms

2. Molecules

3. Organelles

4. Cells

5. Tissues

6. Organs

7. Organ Systems

8. Organisms

7 necessary functions for life

1. Maintaining boundaries

2. Movement

3. Responsiveness

4. Digestion

5. Metabolism

6.Excretion

7. Reproduction

8. Growth

Homeostasis

ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions.

Law of Mass Balance

Amount of substance the body takes in must be equal to the amount that leaves the body

homeostasis communication

1. receptor

2. control cnter

3. Effector

Homeostasis: Receptor

- monitors environment

- responds to stimuli

- sends info along the afferent pathway

Homeostasis: Control Center

-Determines set point

-Analyzes input

-Determine appropriate response

-Info flows down the efferent pathway

Homeostasis: Effector

-carries out response from the control center

-the results from the response than feed back to influence the effect of the stimulus.

Negative Feedback

output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces it's intensity

-variable changes in opposite direction

Positive Feedback

Referred to as cascades

- Good positive feedback: labor and blood clotting

Feedforward Responses

Maintains homeostasis by anticipating change & taking action

standard anatomical position

-erect

-feet slightly apart

-palms face forward & thumbs point away from the body

Superior (cranial)

Towards head

Inferor (caudal)

Towards feet

Axial

head, neck, trunk

Appendicular

limbs and appendages

parietal membrance

lines the cavity walls

visceral membrane

lines the organs in the cavity

What seperates serous membranes?

serous fluid, secreted by both membranes into the serous cavity

Define Energy

the capacity to do work or put matter into motion

kinetic energy

energy in action

potential energy

stored energy

4 elements that make up 96% of the body

Oxygen - 65%

Carbon - 18.5 %

Hydrogen - 9.5 %

Nitrogen - 3.3 %

Atomic #

# of protons in the nucleus

Mass #

total # of protons and neutrons

Isotope

Different atomic forms of the same element, when vary only the number of neutrons they contain

Radioisotopes

isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior

- can help with daignosis and treatment

valence shell

outer shell of an atom

octet rule

8 electrons only in valence shell

electronegativety

electron hungry atoms that strongly attract electrons

electropositive

atoms with only 1 to 2 electrons in the outer shell.

ionic bond

a chemical bond between atoms formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to the other.

anion

A negatively charged ion. Gains one or more electrons. Electrons are donated, not shared.

Cation

positively charged ion. Loses one or more electrons

Covalent bonds

electron sharing produces molecules in which the shared electrons occupy a single orbital common with both atoms.

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

-electrically balanced molecules

- has polarity with water

Polar Covalent bonds

- unequal electron pair sharing

Hydrogen bonds

are formed when a hydrogen atom, already covalently linked to one electronegative atom is attracted by another electron - hungry atom. So that the bridge form between them.

-weaker than covalent bonds

-Help maintain and stabalize structures like DNA & protein

Types of Lipids

triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

Triglycerides

major form of stored energy in the body

-fat deposits protect and insulate body organs.

Phospholipids

-chief components of cell membrane

-modified triglycerides

-2 rather than 3 fatty acid chains

Steroids

component of cell membrane

Why are lipids hydrophobic ?

do not dissolve into water but dissolve into other lipids

role of lipids in the body

they help control what goes in and out of your cells.

monomers of proteins

amino acids

Protein structure

primary structure

- linear sequence of amino acids composing polypeptide chain

secondary structure

- primary chain forms spirals

tertiary structure

quaternary structure

how does protein shape contribute to function?

It determines how it interacts with other molecules

denaturation

loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat or other factor

Holoenzyme

apoenzyme + cofactor

apoenzyme

The protein portion of an enzyme.

coenzyme

If the cofactor is an organic molecule.

cofactor

nonprotein component

how do enzymes work as biological catalysts

Enzymes act as biological catalysts by lowering the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to occur

components of nucleotide

A nitrogen-containing base

A pentose sugar

A phosphate group

Compare and contrast the nucleotides of DNA and RNA

DNA nucleotides have deoxyribose sugar, while RNA nucleotides have ribose sugar; additionally, DNA contains the base thymine (T) while RNA contains uracil (U) in place of thymine, with both sharing the other bases adenine (A), guanine (G), and cytosine (C)

Contrast the structure of DNA and RNA

DNA has deoxyribose, RNA has ribose. DNA has double strand, RNA has singular. DNA's nitrogen bases are A,T,G,C, RNA has all but instead of t it's u. DNA's location in the cell is in the nucleus only, whereas RNA is in the nucleus AND cytoplasm.

Describe the structure of ATP

It is a nucleotide derivative made from the base Adenine, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups

the role of ATP in cells

1. shuttles chemical energy and drives cellular work; the energy currency of cells

2. most immediate source of energy that powers most forms of cellular work

List the three features all human cells share

the membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm

List some extracellular materials

extracellular fluid

cellular secretions

extracellular matrix

Describe the composition of the cell membrane, and explain how the components contribute to the semi-permeable nature of the membrane

-lipids

-proteins

-cabohydrates

-selectively permeable barrier by allowing certain molecules to pass through while restricting others based on their size, polarity, and chemical properties; the hydrophobic interior of the phospholipid bilayer acts as the main barrier for hydrophilic molecules, while specialized proteins facilitate the transport of specific substances across the membrane.

how the chemistry of membrane phospholipids dictates the structure of the membrane

by their amphipathic nature, meaning they have both a hydrophilic (water-loving) head group and a hydrophobic (water-hating) tail, causing them to spontaneously form a lipid bilayer when in aqueous environments, with the hydrophilic heads facing the water and the hydrophobic tails oriented inwards, effectively creating a barrier between the cell's interior and exterior fluids.

stages of mitosis

p

metaphase

anaphase

telephase

part of the cell that synthesizes ATP

mitochondria