20 - Political developments and conflicts: Exclusion and absolutism

In what year did James catholicism become public knowledge?

1669

When did James catholicism become even more clear?

In 1673, when James refused to swear loyalty to the church of england under the Test Act. This confirmed that he was Catholic.

After James, who was next in line for the crown?

James' two daughters, Mary and Anne, both Protestants.

Who did James II mary for the second time? What was the implications of this?

The 15-year old Catholic princess, Mary of Modena . With this marriage there now loomed the very real prospect of a catholic line of succession, and this threat underpinned the exclusion crisis.

What conspiracy created a full-blown political crisis about concerns of James becoming heir?

The 'popish plot'

When was the popish plot?

1678

what was the Popish plot?

Rumours of the popish plot of 1678 were essentially based on Titus Oates' fabrications of a Jesuit (catholic religious order) plan to assassinate Charles II so that he could be replaced by his Catholic brother, James.

This plot would allegedly be supported by an invasion from France and a Catholic rebellion in Ireland.

Why was Oates' popish plot believed?

Oates was believed because of the hysterial anti-Catholicism that had long been part of the English political scene. Anti-catholicism intensified in the 1670s because of the expansion of France under Louis XIV, who the English now saw as aiming at world domination.

Why was the Popish plot significant?What were the courses of action as a result of it?

It raised people's concerns over the growing power of the Crown and of James as a Catholic heir to the throne.

Charles had to accept a second Test Act in 1678, which excluded Catholics from Parliament.

An exemption in the case of James was passed by only two votes. (showing how divided Parliament was)

Alongside the second Test act, Charles agreed to prosecute the penal laws with more rigour.

Who was persecuted as a result of Exclusion crisis?

Edward Coleman, James ex secretary was executed with 3 others, and five catholic peers were set to be impeached.

Why was Edward Coleman executed?

A search of his house revealed letters to Jesuits and to Louis XIV's Jesuit confessor.

Amidst the tension of the exclusion crisis, what did Charles do and when?

Dissolved the Cavalier Parliament in January 1679

After the cavalier parliament, what was the new parliament called and when did it meet?

The First Exclusion parliament met in March 1679 because Charles, as ever, still needed Parliament for money.

How long was the first exclusion parliament ?

March- July 1679

What measures did the first exclusion parliament try to take?

Tried to secure its freedom and rights in the event of a catholic succession. The focus on this issue led to it being labelled the exclusion parliament

- It granted £200,000 to disband Charles II's standing army during peace time

- It secured the Habeas Corpus Amendment Act (May 1679). This act reinforced the common law right whereby, with the exception of treason or felony, the cause of imprisonment had to be stated and a case brought to trial, normally within three days.

When was the Habeas Corpus Amendment Act?

May 1679

What was the aim of the first exclusion parliament?

To protect the subject in case a catholic heir, rather than directly attempt to exclude james from the throne.

What groups did the first exclusion parliament consist of?

- The ;court' who opposed exclusion, was outnumbered two to one by those who were anti-court, who favoured exclusion

How did Charles try to defuse some tension during the exclusion crisis?

He sent James to brussels before Parliament met.

When did Edward Coleman's correspondence become public knowledge and what happened as a result?

On 27 April 1678, some of Edward Coleman's correspondence became public knwoledge. These seemed to show that james had been negotiating with both france and the pope.

In response to the discovery of Edward Coleman's correspondence, what happened as a result and when?

On 30th April 1678, In response, the commons voted that Charles had to promise there would be limitations on a catholic monarch:

- No church patronage

- Parliament to have power of appointment over civil, legal and military offices

How were the promises of limitations on a catholic monarch received?

Appeased some moderates, such as the Marquess of Halifax, but those more committed to exclusion continued to push their position.

Give an example of a more radical attempt to exclude James

On 11 May 1679 one MP called for James' impeachment on charges of high treason. This was followed by the reading of the Exclusion Bill on 15 May, pushed by the leading Whig exclusionist, Shaftesbury.

When was the Exclusion bill paassed and by how many votes?

On 21 May 1679, the Exclusion Bill passed its seconding reading 207 - 128.

What was the problem with the passing of the Exclusion bill?

These numbers, from a total of 509 MPs indicated that many made a conscious decision not to vote, suggesting that there was a possible group for the king to exploit.

Throughout the Exclusion crisis, what was Charles priority?

To protect his position adn that of his brother's right to succeed him as monarch.

After the Exclusion bill passed in May 1679, what did charles do and when?

Prorogued Parliament on 27 May 1679.

What was the name of Charles II's illegitimate son?

The Duke of Monmouth

What led to the dissolving of the first exclusion parliament?

The duke of monmouth had been working with Shaftesbury for the duke of york's exclusion. Monmouth was a protestant and appeared a possible candidate for the throne, despite his illegitimacy.

Charles, wary of Monmouth popularity, dissolved the first Exclusion parliament.

When did Charles II dissolve the first exclusion parliament?

July 1679

When was the peace of Nijmegen?

July 1678

What was Charles foreign policy position with French and Dutch in late 1670s?

After Peace of Nijmegen (July 1678) between the Dutch and French both sought to secure an alliance with England in order to strengthen their position if their conflict resumed.

Charles took advantage of this by trying to secure funds from both so that he could avoid the parliament he said would be summonned in October.

When did Charles become seriously ill and what did this lead to?

In late august 1679, charles became seriously ill. His illness made calls for Exclusion more heated.

As a result of Charles becoming ill, what actions did he take to calm the political atmosphere?

To calm the political atmosphere, Charles temporarily exiled the Duke of Monmouth to the Netherlands in September 1679, and the Duke of York was sent to Scotland to re-establish order.

How did Charles remodel his Privy council?

in autumn of 1679, he removed those opponents (shafestbury, essex and russel) that he had brought into his privy council as an attempt to appease them, and replaced them with younger advisers: the Earl of sunderland, Sidney Godolphin and Clarendon's son, Laurence Hyde.

How did Charles II ensure local loyalty?

There were purges of county commissions of peace, which put local power in the hands of loyalists.

Why did Charles II feel confident proroguing Parliament at the start of the Exclusion Crisis?

Charles also knew that he still had a small standing army that he could turn to (Parliament's vote to disband the army had not been implemented yet).

Charles announced the first of many prorogations of the parliament that had not even met yet. This meant that politics shifted even more out of the parliamentary arena and into the street

What was a key elemnt of the exclusion crisis?

Non-parliamentary pressure, especially from london, Supporters and opponents of the crisis found vocal support from the city population.

What methods did the Whigs use to show their support for exclusion? (6)

Petitions, Pamphlets, Books, Processions, Plots, Prosecutions

How did the whigs use petitions to show their support for exclusion?

Shafetsbury's whig group organised a petition campaign calling for a meeting of parliament without any more prorogation.

The petition in london had 16,000 signatures and there was also numerous county petitions, but Charles II ignored them, claiming that they had no validity.

How did the Whigs use pamphlets to demonstrate their opposition to exclusion?

- A censorship act called the licensing act of 1662 lapsed in 1679, allowing more freedom for the production of pamphlets.

From 1679 to 1681, 200 Exclusionist pamphlets were produced to attack James personally and to disseminate (spread) anti-catholic sentiments

How did Whigs use books to demonstrate support for exclusion?

Whig philosopher, John locke started work on his two treatsies of governent, locke focused on contractual theory of government, equality of man, popular sovereignty, the law of nature, and the right of resistance.

Although Locke's work had great impact in late-eighteenth century England and North America, the fact that the two treasies was not actually printed until after the 1688 revolution means other works such as the republican Henry Neville's Plato Redivivius (1681) were more significant at the time.

How did Whigs use processions to demontrate support for exclusion?

November processions based on celebrating Elizabeth's I accession and the failure of the gunpowder plot in london focused on anti-catholicism, including burning effigies (sculptures) of the pope.

These should not be seen, however, as signs of disorder but part of normal political life.

How did Whigs use plots to demonstrate support for exclusion?

The key plot was Oates' popish plot but others came forward with anti-catholic conspiracy theories.

How many deaths was Oates responsible for due to his 'popish plot'?

Oates was responsible for the death of 35 men.

When did belief in the 'popish plot' collapse?

By 1683, belief in the plot was collapsing.

What happened to Oates and when?

Oates was arrested in 1684 as a result of accusing the duke of york being a traitor.

How did whigs use prosecutions to demonstrate support for exclusion?

In june 1680 charges were brought before the middlesex grand jury in an attempt to prosecute james as a recusant (refuses to attend Church of England services) .

Charles had the jury dissolved before it could make a judgement.

What was the movement that criticised the radicalism of the exclusionists?when was it?

The Abhorrence Movement of 1682

What was the Abhorrence Movement? What emerged as a result?

The abhorrence movement produced addresses stating abhorrence at Shaftesbury's organisation of non-parliamentary pressure for exclusion: known as 'abhorrers' these people stated their hatred of the perceived radicalism of the exclusionists.

Tory ideology emerged as a result with arguments in support of divine right, royal prergoative, the rule of law and passive obedience.

What were the methods that the tories used to demonstrate opposition to exclusion

- petitions, pamphlets and books

- newspaper and government publications

- other

How did tories use pamphlets to demonstrate opposition to exclusion?

The royalist pamphleteer Roger L'estrange was probably the most well-known for publicising the tory argument against exclusion.

There were 64,000 copies of L'estrange's tracts in circulation in 1679.

How did tories use books to demonstrate opposition to exclusion?

There were also detailed printed forms of arguments against Exclusion:

The most significant was the 1680 publication of Robert Filmer's work Patriarcha.

- Filmer claimed that absolute monarchy was ordained(established) by the law of nature, and he argued that medieval english history showed that parliament was subordinate to the crown.

By arguing that absolute monarchy is natural and Parliament is subordinate, so Parliament had no right to exclude James from the throne.

It should be noted that tory arguments for absolutism recognised that a monarch had to respect the laws and interests of their subjects, or they would become a tryant.

How did tories use newspaper and governemnt publications to demonstrate their opposition to the exclusion?

- The most influential tory newspaper was L'estrange's observator, which was published regularly between 1681 and 1687 and was produced as part of the exclusion crisis propaganda.

- There was a government-controlled newspaper, the london gazette

- Charles II himself also produced a declaration in april 1681 attacking the whigs for their radical organisation of non-parliamentary pressure for exclusion.

What were the 'other' methods that tories used to demonstrate their opposition to exclusion

Poems and even playing cards were produced to strengthen the tory cause

They employed the pulpit (the raised platform in a church from which clergy deliver sermons), where Tory-leaning ministers preached loyalty to James and warned that Exclusion would disrupt the natural and lawful order.

They also made use of the playhouse, where popular theatre portrayed the dangers of rebellion and interference with succession.

When was the second exclusion parliament opened and when did it end?

21 October 1680 - 18 January 1681

What did charles use to delay the opening of the second exclusion parliament?

Used seven prorogations to delay the opening of the next parliament until october 1680, a year after it should have opened.

What was passed in the second exclusion parliament ? What were the courses of action as a result?

Another exclusion bill passed through its three readings in the commons and was with the lords by November.

Charles intervened by attending sessions in the lords to show his visible support for James' right to succeed, as the Marquess of Halifax spoke repeatedly in favour of a compromise of limitations on a catholic successor.

The Lords rejected the Exclusion Bill.

Charles then dissolved Parliament on 18th January 1681

In response to the Lords rejecting the Exclusion Bill of the second exclusion parliament, what did the Commons offer? What did this lead to?

In response, the commons offered charles £600,000 for exclusion, and then reinforced this by a stated refusal to grant any money until Exclusion was granted.

Charles then dissolved Parliament on 18th January 1681

What was the name of the parliament after the second exclusion parliament?

The Oxford parliament

When was the Oxford Parliament?

March 1681

What was the Oxford parliament? What was its signifiance?

At the Oxford Parliament, Charles II deliberately met Parliament in the loyalist city of Oxford, where support for the monarchy and the Church of England was strong.

By this point in the Exclusion Crisis, many moderates had become uneasy about the radical tactics of the exclusionists, such as mass petitions and political agitation, which seemed to threaten stability.

Charles took advantage of this shift in opinion to isolate his opponents, defeat Exclusion, and emerge politically stronger with growing Tory-Anglican support.

In the oxford parliament, what did Charles offer? How did Commons react?

Charles offered that William and mary would be regents for James. This was rejected by the Commons, who then planned a new Exclusion Bill, with Shafetsbury openly calling for Monmouth to be the next monarch.

When did the Commons decide another Exclusion bill would be introduced during the Oxford Parliament? Was there any opposition?

On 26 March 1681 the Commons decided, with only 20 dissenting voices, that another Exclusion bill should be introduced.

How was Charles able to dissolve the Oxford Parliament?

Through a secret treaty of March 1681 with Louis XIV:

- He managed to secure £40,000 immediately and £115,000 annually for three years.

- In exchange for the money, he promised not to call another parliament for three years.

When was Charles secret treaty with Louis XIV?

March 1681

When and why did Charles dissolve the Oxford Parliament?

Charles dissolved the Oxford Parliament on 28th March 1681 after securing the French money, since he no longer needed MPs to supply him with funds.

Following the dissolution of the Oxford Parliament, what did Charles produce? Give examples.

Propaganda outlining his moderate stance, in particular:

He released in April 1861 'the Declaration touching the reasons that moved him to dissolve the two last parliaments'.

This was ordered to be read from every pulpit.

What was the effect of Charles propaganda?

His clear stance, and the general mood among the Political nation, especially those outside of London that had reacted against the radicalism of the Whigs, meant he defeated Excluion.

When was the 'declaration touching the reasons that moved him to dissolve the two last parliaments' produced?

April 1681

What was the consequence of Charles removing the threat of exclusion after dissolving parliament?

Despite removing threat of exclusion after dissolving parliament in 1681, Charles had failed to get a settlement with Parliament.

This meant that he was forced to rely on Louis XIV for financial support.

Some historians, such as Melinda Zook, argue that the exclusion crisis continued well beyond 1681.

Name the reasons why exclusion failed (9)

Charles' finance, Conservatism of the lords and the church, Wider support, Prerogative powers of prorogation and dissolution, Loyalism resurged: Radicalism of exclusion. Limits of whig support, Persecution, Scotland

Charles' finance (reasons why exclusion failed)

Having secured the secret treaty of March 1681 with france and the subequent french money, Charles could dissolve parliament and stop the exclusion bills from passing

Conservatism of the lords and the church (reasons why exclusion failed)

A fundamental issue was the exclusion bills would never pass the conservative lords.

Charles could rely upon a block of support in the lords from the bishops.

Wider support (reasons why exclusion failed)

There was genuine popular support for toryism, which was strengthened by the propaganda produced.

Part of Charles' strategy was to wait for public opinion to rally to him.

Prerogative powers of prorogation and dissolution (reasons why exclusion failed)

Charles was resolute (firm) where he was normally weak, using his powers of prorogation and dissolution decisively to stop the exclusion bills.

Loyalism resurged (reasons why exclusion failed)

Tory propaganda portraying exclusionists as men who wanted to establish a republic encouraged loyalism to return in 1680-81

Radicalism of exclusion (reasons why exclusion failed)

The exclusion bills actually called for James to be subjected to a traitor's death - by hanging, drawing and quartering - if he tried to take the crown.

Exclusion was also seen as radical because it was trying to change the divine succession of monarchs.

Limits of whig support (reasons why exclusion failed)

There were limits to Shafetsbury's exclusionist political group:

- There was a body of moderates (or trimmers) who did not vote at all.

- Only a minority of MPs voted for exclusion. So while shaftesbury may have had vocal Whig support, there was only a small number of MPs who were prepared to follow this through.

- Even the influence of the Whig crowd could be seen as limited: it was dramatic, but certainly less of a real threat than the 'london mob' under Pym in 1641.

Persecution (reasons why exclusion failed)

Charles used persecution and repression against his whig opponents, backed by those who supported the tory agenda.

Scotland (reasons why exclusion failed)

An attempted scottish convenanter rebellion against religious restrictions was crushed, and Charles II maintained control over scotland during this period.

By demonstrating he could handle opposition outside England, Charles made it politically and practically more difficult for the Exclusion Bill to succeed.

When did Charles die?

1685

In what kind of position did James II come to the throne?

The strength of the Stuart monarchy in alliance with a tory reaction saw the catholic James II come to throne in 1685 in apparently very strong position when Charles died in 1685.

Briefly describe James II personality:

James II was naturally authoritarian and was inflexible. Like his father, Charles I, he regarded all opposition as treason.

What made James' position weak?

He was open to catholicism.

How was James open to catholicism:

- his ultimate aim was to improve the position of catholics and give them power. Everything else can be seen as subsrvient or a means to achieve his religious goals.

- He wanted the repeal of the penal laws against catholics and dissenters, and part of this entailed the repeal of test and corporation acts.

How was James' attitude to dissenters inconsistent?

For example, while he suspended penal laws against both catholics and dissenters, he was not willing to allow dissenters into universities or to serve as army officers.

At the start of James' reign, what did he declare?

He would 'never depart from the just rights and prerogative of the crown' to ease fears about his catholicism and the threat of absolutism.

Despite the strength of James position in 1685, what did he fail to recognise?

James failed to recognise that the tories' loyalty was to an essentially intolerant church of england, not to a king who wanted to alter the religious settlement radically.

When was the Scottish rebellion under James?

1685

What was the Scottish rebellion under James?

In scotland, the earl of Argyll led a rising in spring 1685 in the southwest Highlands against James, but it failed.

In reaction, as he did elsewhere, James appointed catholics to positions of power to assert his control.

What was the rebellion plot under Duke of Monmouth? what was the result?

Duke of Monmouth plotted a rebellion in the west of England in response to James becoming king.

The rebels were crushed by the standing army in July 1685, and Monmouth was executed?

What was the following events as a result of Monmouth's rebellion plot?

A judge sentenced a further 250 to death, and 800 were transported to the west indies as slaves in what became known as 'the bloody assizes;.

There was a similarly brutal response to the Scottish rebellion.

When was the rebels of Monmouth's plot crushed by?

July 1685

What were the reasons for the failure of the 1685 rebellions

Military weakness, rapid government response, lack of support from moderate presbyterians and limited support for the leaders Argyll and Monmouth.

When was James II's first parliament?

May 1685

What was James II's first parliament mainly made up of?

Tories.

What did James first parliament vote for?

- Substantial funds for James so that he had an income of about £2 million a year during his reign

- To extend James' army to 20,000 troops by December 1685

Despite Parliament's vote, what did James do and what happened as a result?

James used his dispensing power to appoint nearly 90 catholic army officers.

Parliament protested against this: they were concerned that the catholic officers might give James a force that loyal solely to him.

The issue led to a constitutional clash in November, as Parliament argued only they could exempt catholics and dissenters from the test acts to allow them to serve in the army.

As a result of the constitutional clash between James and Parliament, what did james do?

James prorogued parliament, which had been sitting for less than two weeks.