PSC 140 Midterm 2

theories of cognitive & social development: a sociocultural approach (topic)

why do we care about theories of cognitive & social development?

• theory is a critical part of the scientific method

  • organizes our thinking

  • offers a shared language

  • can be new or established

• examining developmental theories:

  • gives us some perspective on how the field itself has developed

  • help us to better understand children

theories of cognitive & social development

• historic theories

  • cognitive development

    • piaget

    • vygotsky

  • social development

    • ethology

    • learning

• contemporary theories

  • sociocultural

    • Bronfrenbrenner biocological model (chap 9)

    • Vygotsky (chap 9)

    • Rogoff (assigned article)

  • information processing

    • piaget +learning + dodge social problem solving

  • core knowledge

    • piaget + ethology

theories of cognitive and social development

• a sociocultural approach

  • bronfrenbrenner’s bioecological model

  • vygotsky

  • rogoff

Sociocultural theories of cognitive development 

• Cognitive development occurs in interpersonal contact

• Guided participation (is important) in which knowledgeable individuals guide child learning (an important sociocultural process)

Bioecolgical model

• A child environment is gonna be composed of nested structures 

• Each structure represents a different level of influence on the child development

Vygotskian principles of cognitive development

• Children are social beings shaped by their cultural contexts

• Children are both learners and teachers

• Children are products of their culture

• Cognitive change orinates in social interaction

How does cognitive change occur?

• Social referencing: children look to social partners for guidance about how to respond to unfamiliar events

• Social scaffolding: more competent people provide temporary frame works that lead children to higher-order thinking 

  • Ex. ways teacher can scaffold children learning: providing hints, offer range of possible answers (when childrens are having a hard time), can help give the kids additional resources 

  • Can be used to help childrens learn new skills and knowledge

  • Autobiographical memory: memories of one’s own experiences, including one’s thoughts and emtiions

Vygosky and cognitive change

• Zone of proximal development

  • The range b/w what children can do unsupported vs what they can do with optimal social support

• Ex. addition: if they had a more expert partner, then they can pratice doing addition with 2 digits number as compared to doing addition with single digits 

• How much flexibility we see in the child’s ability will be based on the experience that their social partners have

what is zone of proximal development?

• not static, it changes with childs abilities, knowledge, support, etc

• recognizes that children have a range of possible learning outcomes

• children do not passively absorb information, they actively construct it during interactions with others

Contemporary social cultural theory

• Rogoff

  • Cultural differences in parenting, expectations, etc, creating learning differences

  • Third party attention:attening to events not directly addressed to oneself can provide important information

Piaget theory

• Piaget observed and described children at different ages

• His theory is very broad

• Piaget theory focuses on nature-nuture interaction and continuities and discontinuities

• Goes through birth through adulthood

• Includes moral reasoning and all of cognitive development

• Described this changes as stages (stage theory), development is done in stages 

• Principle of stage theory are consistent, fixed way of thinking

• Piaget says there are 4 stages of cognitive development 

• Stage theory is considered discontinuity development

Piaget assumption about children

• Children construct their own knowledge in response to their experiences

  • Structures (schemas): an organized group of interrelated memories, thoughts, and strategies that the child uses in trying to understand a situation

• Children are intrinsically motivated to learn and do not need rewards from adults to motivate learning 

  • They live to learn, they love to learn

Central themes in Piaget's theory

• Nature and nurture interact to produce cognitive development

  • Organization: Children use observations to build a body of coherent knowledge 

  • adaptation: children respond to the demands of the environment in ways that meet their own goals

• 2 processes work together from birth to help children organize knowledge 

  • Assimilation: (relying on information you already have), people translate incoming  information into a form they can understand

    • Sees cat and he says ‘dog’

  • Accommodation: (cognitive change is happening, change in knowledge structure ), people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences

    • Sees cat and says ‘dog’ but then they correct and tell him its not a dog it a cat (he is accommodating). There's a change in knowledge structure 

• There are distinct stages of cognitive development, with the following properties:

  • Qualitative change (different kids are different ages, perform/think differently)

  • Broad applicability (in the stage the child it is in it is going to influence any domains that its in) (stage theory explains the cognitive development in all of the kids in the age)

  • Brief translations 

  • Invariant sequence (everyone passes through the stages in the exact same order, no skipping or going backwards)

Piaget said most ppl dont get to the last stage

piaget stages of cognitive development (image)

Sensimotor stage

• Birth to 2 years

• Knowledge develops through sensory and motor abilities 

  • Object permanence: the knowledge that things continue to exist when out of sight 

    • A not B error

  • Deferred imitation: the repetition of other people behavior after a delay (happens at the end of the stage)

Preoperational stage

• 2-7 years 

• Symbolic representations: the use of one object to stand for another 

• Egocentrism: looking at the world only from one’s point of view

Concrete operational stage

• Concrete operational stage (7 to 11-12 yrs)

  • Children can reason logically about concrete objects and events

  • Exemplified by the development of the conversation concept (more than one dimension at a time)

    • Children understand the conversation concept when they realize that changing the appearance or arrangement of objects does not necessarily change other key properties (e.g., understand that the volume of water in one big cup is the same in the small cup)

  • Conservation is what Piaget believes is the most important in this stage believe is a huge cognitive milestone

conservation

Formal operational stage

• Ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically 

• Ability to engage in scientific thinking 

  • Hypothetical deductive reasoning: hitting a glass with a feather vs a hammer, what happens to the glass?

Types of reasoning  (huge milestone)

• Deductive reasoning:

  • General information -> specific instances

  • We have general information, and we apply it to specific instances 

  • It's not until adolescence that deductive reasoning emerges 

  • It's in the scientific method

• Inductive reasoning:

  • Specific instances -> general information

  • Are our personal love experiences, and we extract rules of how the world works 

  • Kids are very good at inductive reading 

  • See it throughout  the life cycle 

  • It's in the scientific method

Strengths of piaget theory

• Children actively seek and construct knowledge 

• Development follows an invariant sequence (Development processes through stages)

• Errors are informative and may provide important information about the development of children's thinking 

• Cognitive development in the first two years does not depend on language

Weakness of piaget theory

• Children's thinking is not as consistent as the stages suggest

• Infants and young children are more competent than Piaget recognized 

• Piaget understands the social components of cognitive development 

• Piaget was better at describing processes than explaining how they operate

Information processing theories

• Computer as a model

• Hardware

• Software

• more about the mechanism, when referring to learning applies to both cognitive and social domains 

• Children are active problem solvers 

• View children as undergoing continuous cognitive change 

• Examine how nature and nurture work together

• Describe how cognitive change occurs

• Are concerned with the development of learning, memory, and problem-solving skills

Development of learning and memory

• Working memory: system that involves actively attending to, gathering, maintaining, storing, and processing information

• Long-term memory: consists of the knowledge that people accumulate over a lifetime 

• Executive functioning: involves the control of cognition

• Basic memory process

  • Associating events with one another

  • Recognizing objects as familiar 

  • Generalizing from one instance to another 

  • Encoding (representing features of objects and events in memory)

  • The speed with which children execute basic processes increases greatly over the course of childhood 

  • Myleination

Development of strategy

• Learning and memory emerge at 5 and 8 yrs of age

  • Because of the acquisition of strategies (learning different strategies)

Social learning theory

• Observation and imitation are the primary mechanisms of development

• Banduras bobo doll study

  • Does vicarious reinforcement, observing someone else receive a reward or punishment, affect behavior?

Information processing theory of social problem solving

• Emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in social behavior 

• Research focuses on the use of aggression as a problem-solving strategy 

  • Hostile attribution bias: the tendency to assume that other people’s ambiguous actions stem from hostile intent

Core knowledge theories of cognitive development

• Principles of core knowledge theories 

  • Focus on areas (such as understanding people) that have been important throughout human history

  • Children are much more advanced in their thinking than Piaget suggested 

  • Children have innate cognitive capabilities that are the product of human evolutionary processes

Ethological theories

• Ethology: the study of behavior within an evolutionary context

• Ethologists argue that a variety of innate behavior patterns in animals, including imprinting, were shaped by evolution 

Conclusion: **** mention for which conclusion this is

• These theories have contradictory features 

• It is not possible to create a unified grand theory 

• We incorporate insights from all of the theories to help us understand children in different ways and in different settings

Conceptual development (topic)

Development of folk knowledge

• Children develop theories about the natural world, test them out and refine their mental maps 

• They have theories about actions, objects, spacve people, and number

Understanding people

• Three psychological constructs are at the center of naive psychology the ideas that people commonly use to understand human behavior 

  • desires

  • beliefs

  • actions

• piagetian, nativist, and empiricists/socialcultural theorists have different explanations for how children develop common sense ideas about people

piaget (recap)

• Development processes through stages

• Childrens thinking changes qualitavelty as they progress through the stages 

• Egocentrism 

• Shift from preoperational to concrete operational thought

• Understanding minds of others a product of cognitive development

nativist /core knowledge theories (recap)

• Have innate knowledge relevant to areas that have beenn important throughout human evolution

• Knowledge is domain specific

• Origins of abilities seen in infancy

• Understanding people emereges infancy

Theory of mind (what is it?)

• b/w ages 2 and 5 yrs children form a theory of mind

• ‘Theory of mind’ is a basic understanding of how the mind works and influences behavior

• A child's theory or mind includes knowledge of perceptions, psychological states, and actions

Theory of mind: false beliefs problems

• 3 yr old children have some understanding of how beliefs and desires affect behaviors 

• Knowing what other people are thinking , and incorporating their perspective is necessary in theory of mind tasks

Where does theory of mind come from?

• Theory of mind module - a brain mechanism devoted to understanding other human beings 

• What is the evidence?

  • Brain areas specialized for this reasoning 

  • Invariance in the timing of development 

  • Deficit in children with autism spectrum disorder (only one view)

• Attentive parents 

• Joint attention

• Imitation

• Social experiences

• Talking about mental stages

• Sensitivity to feelings of others

• Pretend play

empiricist/social cultural theories

• Devlopment results from everyfay interactions with others

• Children are products of their culture/experience/environment 

• Experince interacting with others is important for development of theory of mind

  • Children with older siblings do better on false belief tasks

• Performance on false beliefs tasks is a function of other cognitive abilities

what is number understanding?

• Numerical equality 

  • The relization that all sets of N objects have something (ie. two dogs, two cups..) 

  • Infants as young as 5 month old appear to have some sense of numerical quality

How does number understanding develop?(piaget view)

• Number abilities undergo qualitative change through the stages he described 

• Operational thought is especially important, why?

  • Operational thinking support

How does number understanding develop?(nativist/core knowledge view)

• Innate core concept of number 

  • Special mechjanims for representing and earning about numbers

  • Specialized brain areas

  • Number abilities should be early emerging 

• Newborns has non sykmbolic numerical equality 

• According to this presecrive, infants can add and subtract

How does number understanding develop?(empiricist / socialcultural view)

• General cognitive abilities 

• Cultural differences in numerical understanding

Sociocultural differences in culture

• Children from china learn to count faster than US 

  • Could be of how numbers are represented in

Ramani & siegler

• Low income children are often at the disadvantage with respect to number knowledge 

• Ramani & siegler hypothesized that these children differ in their number sense 

• Ramani & siegler gave them the opportunity to play these games what differences do you see b/w the boards ?

inteligence (topic)

what is inteligence?

• The ability to 

  • Use knowledge to reason

  • Make decisions 

  • Solve problems 

  • Understand complex ideas 

  • Learn quickly

  • Make sense of events

  • Adapt to environmental challenges 

• Hard to define which makes it difficult to measure

Intelligence as a single trait

Charles setrum came with the idea that everyone holds a certain amount of g (general intelligence). He came through this concept through backdoor analysis (a statistical method that uses observations to make an estimate of a quality factor)

Intelligence as a few basic abilities

• Two types of intelligence

  • Crystallized intelligence: factual knowledge about the world, word meanings, arithmetic, etc (semantic knowledge)

  • Fluid  intelligence: ability to think on the spot by drawing inferences and understanding relations b/w conceptys not previously encountered

• Crystalized intelligence is something that continues to grow over the life span, fluid intelligence peaks at around 30’s and gradually declines from there 

• Thurstone's seven primary mental abilities 

  • He thought 2 wasn’t enough so he believed we needed 7 categories 

  • Word fluency, verbal meaning, reasoning, spatial visualization, numbering, rote memory, and perceptual speed 

• Thurstone vs cattel 

  • The 7 mental abilties is more precise and give us more details compared to just 2 types

Resolving the competing perspectives

• John Carroll proposed the three-stratum theory of inteligencee which is a hierarchical integration that includes

  • g

  • eight generalized abilities

  • many specific processes

what is Emotional intelligence?

• Emotional intelligence: its meaning varies across cultures, social intelligence that emphasizes the ability to manage, recognize, and understand emotions and use emotions to guide appropriate thought and action

• resilience/grit: an individual's ability to properly adapt to stress and adversity

The complexity of intelligence

• The development of intelligence is embedded in contexts 

Measuring intelligence: intelligence tests

• Bayley scale of infant development 

• Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children (WISC)

• (WIDC) is divided into 2 main sections

  • Verbal: general knowledge and language skills (crystalized intelligence)

  • Performance: spatial and perceptual abilities ( fluid intelligence)

• Stanford binet

• Intelligence quotient IQ: the overall quantitative measure of a child's intelligence relative to that of other children of the same age 

  • IQ = MA /CA * 100

  • MA = mental age, which the test estimates, ca = chronological age (how may day old you are) that how we get an IQ score

Stability of IQ scores

• Scores are stable from the age of 5 onward

• Children IQ at 5 have high correlation with their IQ at age 15

• The scores however, do show an average change up or down a few points

• IQ as a predictor

Is intelligence testing valid?

• IQ is the best single predictor pf school performance and educational attainment

  • Predicts work performance, income, and performance in jobs requiring complex skills

• But other factors matter too 

  • Individual motivation 

  • Background

• Biases in IQ testing

  • Normative scoring – who makes up the ‘average’ group

  • Cultural bias – based on knowing the langauge and culture of a mainstream

  • May reflect education and schooling, not intelligence

Influences of schooling

• School attendance improves IQ scores

• Average IQ scores rise during the school year and drop during the school

• Intelligence and schooling 

  • Tale of 2 schools 

  • Westernized schooling

Brazilian street math

• kids in brazil who sell fruits are able to make good math calculations on the spot, but when they are told to do problems on paper or write it out they dont do well

Race, ethnicity and intelligence

• It is in fact that IQ scores differ among groups

• These data refer only to statistical averages, not individual scores

• Millions of ethnic minorities have higher IQ’s than that of the average Euro-American 

• There are differences in ethnic performance on subtests 

• Race is not an explanatory factor - score differential is indicative of the environment within which children are raised

Poverty and intelligence

• Poverty affects intelligence in several ways

  • Malnutrition and teratogens can disrupt brain development

  • Reduced access to health services, poor parenting, insufficient stimulation, and emotional support can impair intellectual growth 

  • In all countries studied, children from wealthier homes scored higher on IQ tests than children from poorer homes

  • In countries with the most income inequality, the difference in IQ is the greatest

Risk factors and IQ

• Risk factors that are related to IQ scores

  • Head of the household is unemployed or working in low status occupation 

  • Mother did not complete high school

  • At least four children in the family

  • No father or stepfather in the home

  • African American family

  • A large number of stressful life events in the past few years 

  • Rigidity of parents' beliefs about child development

  • Maternal anxiety 

  • Maternal mental health

  • Negative mother-child interactions

Intervention programs

• Programs that work: 

  • Home-based programs: focus on improving parenting skills

  • Center-based program: childcare with emphasis on teaching reading and arithmetic skills, reinforcement of learning, and providing a stimulating environment

• Carolina abecefarian project – box 8.2

• Head Start program

Effectiveness of programs

• Gains in IQ scores from participation in early programs are not lasting, but there are other long-term effects

  • Fewer children needed special education classes 

  • Fewer children were held back in school

  • More program participants graduated from high school

  • Less likely to turn to criminal activity

Principles of successful intervention programs

• Timing 

• Intensity

• Direct provision of learning experiences 

• Breadth 

• Recognition of individual differences

• Environmental maintenance of development 

• Cultural appropriateness and relevance of intervention strategies

Conclusions of inteligence

• Intelligence and success in life involve a broader range of capabilities than those measured by traditional intelligence traits 

• There is no single correct theory of intelligence 

• A variety of theories and assessments reveal the different ways in which people are intelligent 

• Early intervention programs can dramatically affect both intelligence and academic achievement  

emotional (topic)

What are emotions?

• Emotions are feelings or affect that involve: 

  • subjective evaluation 

  • Physiological process - heart rate…

  • Cognitive appraisals 

• Emotions are short-lived

• Emotion motivates people towards an action

Discrete emotions theory

• Innate, evolved, and universal

• Suggests emotional experiences are innate, evolved, and universal

• We have 5+ emotions that are seen as default/universal 

  • Anger

  • Fear

  • Sadness

  • Disgust

  • Happiness

  • Surprise

• Emotions have unique physiological reactions

Functionalist perspective on emotion

• The basic function of emotion is to promote action 

• What do emotions do?

  • Emotions are central, adaptive forces in all aspects of human activity

  • Promote action toward achieving a goal 

  • Emotions determine 

    • Cognitive processing 

    • Social processing

When do basic emotions emerge?

• Carool anaylzye facial expression of infants 

• Children need to be able to discriminate between each emotion 

• Newborn infants will habituate towards the difference of 2 emotions

Basic emotions in infancy

• Newborns experience only pleasure and distress

• By 6 months, infants have all basic emotions

Stranger warriness

• Emerges around 6 months

  • Infants begin to realize that all people are not the same, the relationship they have with their primary caregivers is special 

• Separation anxiety, which is distress due to separation from the parent who is the child’s primary caregiver

Complex emotions in toddlerhood

• Self-conscious emotions 

• Embarrassment, pride, guilt, and shame

• Involve feelings of success when one’s standards or expectations are met and failure when they are not

• Require a sense of self

Emotional development in later childhood

• Children overall become less intense and less emotionally negative with age in the preschool and early school years

• Cognitive development changes the causes of emotions

  • Fears are generally related to real-life important issues rather than imaginary creatures

  • Perceptions of others' motives and intentions are important in determining whether or not a child will be angered 

  • Understand regret and relief 

Emotional development in adolescence

• Emotional intensity during adolescence 

• Why?

  • Hormonal changes 

  • Frontal regions of the brain develop

Adolescent depression

• depression increases in boys and girls as the grow but more for older girls

Cultural experiences in emotional expression

• Children’s and parents' experience, expression, and understanding of emotion are embedded in the physical and social structures within which they live, and the beliefs, values, and practices of the culture 

• There are cultural differences in children’s expression of emotions

  • Japanese toddlers show more distress than European toddlers

• Why?

  • Collectivism vs individualism 

  • Children's place in the family 

  • Value of emotional experience and expression 

• Children also learn to understand the difference b/w real and false emotions

• Display rules: a social group’s informal norms about when, where and how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotions should be suppressed or masked by displays of other emotions

Display rules in lab

Regulation of emotions

• Emotional self-regulation: a complex process that involves initiating, inhibiting, or modulating 

  • Internal feeling states (subjective emotional experience)

  • Emotion-related physiological processes (ex. Heart rate)

  • Emotion-regulated cognitions (thoughts about desires or about how to interpret situations)

  • Emotion-related behavior (ex. Facial expressions of feelings or aggression due to anger)

The development of emotional regulation

• Parents help infants regulate their emotions by controlling exposure to stimuli, removing the source of frustration or fear

• By 6 months, infants begin to ‘self soothe’, distracting themselves through shifting their gaze or stroking objects or clothing 

• With language development, children use talk to regulate the expression of emotions

• Adults teach children how to express emotions in social acceptable ways

  • Social referencing 

  • Cognitive strategies

Using cognitive strategies to control negative emotions

• Young children use behavioral strategies to regulate emotions 

• Older children use cognitive strategies to distract themselves by thinking about goals and focusing on positive aspects of a situation 

• Children learn to select appropriate regulatory strategies through problem-solving skills, the recognition of things they cannot control, and by adapting to the situation

delay of gratification

• the ability to delay gratification predicts social, emotional, and academic competence years later

temperament

• temperament:

  • biologically based individual differences in behavioral tendencies

  • consistent across situations

  • relatively stable over time

• New York Longitudinal Study

  • easy

  • difficult

  • slow to warm up

stability of temperament

• Traits remain stable over time

• behavioral inhibition

  • the tendency to be fearful and restrained when dealing with novel or stressful situations

• Goodness of fit matters:

  • goodness of fit - how well an individual’s temperament matches their environment

attachment (topic)

what is attachment?

• its the close and enduring bond b/w children and their parents or other primary caregivers

• early research on attachment was done with children seperated from their parents early in life

harry harlow

• harry harlow conducted experimental work with monkeys

• he found that monkeys raised without their mothers or other monkeys were maladjusted socially throughout their lives

• cloth vs wire mother

  • once monkey woudl go to wire mother to be fed but once done it would go to the cloth mother suggesting it tactile that forms the bond not feeding

the caregiver as a secure base

• john bowly was also influenced by Freud’s theory of how infants early relationships with mothers shape later development

• he replaced the psychoanalytic with the concept of the secure base

• secure base = they look at caregiver for hints, a starting point

• this concept was influenced by the ethological theory of konrad lorenz

bowlby’s attachment phase (4 phases)

• preattachment (birth to 6 weeks) : infants signals people to them (by crying)

• attachment in the making (6 weeks to 6-8 months): preference for familiar people is shown

• clear-cut attachment (6-8 months to 1 ½ - 2 years): infants actively seek contact with the caregiver

• reciprocal relationships (1 - ½ years on): infants make organized efforts to be near their parents

outcome of the phase:

• internal working model of attachment: mental representations of the self in relationships with others

mary ainsworths research

• she conducted naturalistic observation of parents and children in Uganda (1954) and balitmore, maryland

• strange situation test

• bell and anisworth (1972): maternal responsiveness and crying

aniworths strange situation

steps in strange situations:

• observer shows the experimenter room to mother and infant, then leaves the room

• infant is allowed to explore the playroom for 3 minutes; mother watches but doesnt participate

• a stranger enters the room and remains silent for 1 minute, then talks to the baby for a minute; and then approaches the baby, and the mother leaves quietly

• the stranger does not play with the baby but attempts to comfort it if necessary

• after 3 minutes the mother returns, greets, and consoles the baby

• when the baby has returned to play, the mother leaves again, this time she says goodbye when she leaves

• stranger attempts to calm and play with the baby

• after 3 minutes, the mother returns and the stranger leaves

what are the patterns of infant attachment? ( 4 types)

• 3 types of insecure

  • insecurely resistant or ambivalent

  • insecure avoidant

  • disorganized/disoriented

• 1 type of secure

anisworth secure attachment

• securely attached

  • use the mother as a secure base but leave her side to explore the room

  • happy to see the mother return

cultural variations in attachment

• similarities in secure attachment are seen cross culturally, but not in the other patterns oof attachment

• japanese infants behave differently from U.S infants in the strange situations

factors associated with security attachment

• parental sensitivity in child rearing

• characteristics of the child

parental sensitivity

• its a caregiving behavior that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children

• it can be exhibited in a variety of ways, including responsive caregiving when an infant is distressed or upset and engaging in coordinated play with the infant

• mothers of securely attached infants generally respond warmly to their offspring and are sensitive to their needs

parental sensitivity and patterns of attachment

• mothers of securely attached infants respond readily to their children’s signal

• mothers of anxious/resistant infants are inconsistent in caregiving

• mothers of anxious/avoidant infants tend to be indifferent and emotionally unavailable

• mothers of disorganized/distressed infants are intrusive, emotionally unavailable; may dissociate or be in a trance-like state; confuses or frightens the child; may be harsh or abusive

child characteristics - temperament

• the child’s temperament influences the parent’s behavior and the security of the child’s attachment

• parents may be frustrated by difficult children

• children who elicit negative responses from parents are more likely to be insecurely attached than other children

why does it matter what kind of attachment children have?

• this first social relationship may provide the basis for all of the individual’s later social relationships

• securely attached children

  • show better social adjustment

  • have better social skills

  • use good/appropriate emotional expression and communication

• Insecure/avoidant children:

  • show inhibitive emotional responsiveness

  • do not seek comfort from other people

• behavior patterns carry on to older years, unless drastic environmental changes occur

long term effects of attachment patterns

• (zimmerman 2004)

  • 43 adolescents asked about their childhood attachment and their current friendships

  • secure attachments as children predicted closer friendships as adolescents

• (simpson et al 2007)

  • 78 individuals tested in strange situations at 1 year and followed to ages 20 - 23

  • securely attached infants had better friendships as teens and better romantic relationships in 20s

• research on long-term effects is correlational