Intersectionality Reading

What title does Crenshaw cite as a point of departure to critique the single-axis approach to discrimination?

All the Women Are White; All the Blacks Are Men, But Some of Us are Brave.

What central concept does Crenshaw coin to describe how race and gender intersect in experiences of discrimination?

Intersectionality—the idea that discrimination can operate on multiple axes (e.g., race and sex) simultaneously.

Which three Title VII cases does Crenshaw analyze to illustrate the failure of single-axis discrimination doctrine?

DeGraffenreid v. General Motors; Moore v. Hughes Helicopter, Inc.; Payne v. Travenol.

What did the DeGraffenreid court say about Black women as a 'special class' protected by Title VII?

The court refused to recognize Black women as a special class and declined a combined race-and-sex remedy.

Why did the DeGraffenreid court conclude there was no sex discrimination in GM’s seniority system?

Because GM had hired white women before 1964, the court held there was no sex discrimination perpetuated by the seniority system.

In Moore v. Hughes Helicopter, what issue prevented the Black female plaintiff from representing all women?

The court denied class certification, treating Moore’s claim as a Black female-specific issue that could not represent all women.

How did the Moore decision affect the use of statistics in a Black female disparate impact claim?

Moore limited statistics to Black women only, which often yielded an insufficient sample to prove discrimination.

What issue arose in Payne v. Travenol regarding representing Black men and Black women in a class action?

The court narrowed the class to Black women only, excluding Black men due to potential conflicting interests, despite finding racial discrimination.

What is the 'basement-ceiling hatch' analogy Crenshaw uses to describe access to protection under anti-discrimination law?

A hatch allows only some to crawl through from a basement of broadly disadvantaged people; multiply-burdened individuals (like Black women) are often denied access.

How does Crenshaw critique the 'separate spheres' narrative in feminist theory?

It is grounded in white women's experiences and often fails to account for Black women's intersectional oppression and cross-cutting racism.

What historical figure and phrase does Crenshaw invoke to illustrate Black women's leadership in feminism?

Sojourner Truth's 'Ain't I a Woman?' illustrates Black women's central role and challenges to white feminist assumptions.

What does Crenshaw argue about rape laws and Black women's experiences in the context of race and gender?

Rape law historically centered white female chastity; Black women faced different, racially racialized harms and were not adequately protected by rape statutes.

Whose quotation does Crenshaw use to emphasize Black women's central role in entering political and social life?

Anna Julia Cooper: 'Only the Black Woman can say, when and where I enter, then and there the whole Negro race enters with me.'

What policy shift does Crenshaw advocate for in expanding feminist theory and antiracist politics?

Center intersectionality by integrating race and gender analyses, addressing life chances of the most disadvantaged, and reframing discrimination discourse.

What is Crenshaw’s critical view of Moynihan and Moyers’ discussions of Black families?

They emphasize pathology and gendered blame within Black communities, often ignoring sexism; feminists provided little counterpoint.

What is Cooper’s quote’s significance for Black feminist theory in Crenshaw’s view?

It stresses that Black women's leadership is essential to the broader race's progress and that Black women must be included in analyses of oppression.

What is Crenshaw’s ultimate call about discrimination discourse at the end of her piece?

Recenter discrimination discourse at the intersection of race and gender so that 'When they enter, we all enter'.