research methods

explain lab experiments

• controlled conditions

• manipulates iv

• measures dv

evaluate lab experiments

strength:

• (1) high degree of control over extraneous variables → high internal validity
  

limitations:

• (1) lacks external validity - artificial nature of environment - low ecological validity
  (2) demand characteristics
  

explain field experiments

• natural conditions

• manipulates iv

• measures dv

evaluate field experiments

strength:

• (1) ecological validity as it is representative of everyday behaviours → ack of demand characteristics

limitations:

• (1) less control over extraneous variables- can distort validity

• (2) ethical issues: ppts can’t give consent beforehand
  → cost benefit analysis needed

explain natural experiments

• natural conditions

• naturally occurring iv (unemployment, earthquakes, tsunamis)

• measures dv

evaluate natural experiments

strength:

• (1) high ecological validity - real life situations being studied so no demand characteristics

• (2) allows us to test unethical things we couldn’t otherwise

limitations:

• (1) no control over environment or extraneous variables - confounding variables affect result

• (2) can’t replicate usually because of ethical concerns and they don’t happen often or in the same way, so hard to generalise

explain quasi experiments

• controlled or natural conditions

• iv is the difference between people (e.g. gender, age, iq)

• measures dv

evaluate quasi experiments

strength:

• (1) allows researchers to compare different types of people

limitations:

• (1) can’t randomly allocate to remove bias

• (2) when done in controlled conditions, demand characteristics and low ecological validity

• (3) when done in natural conditions, no control over extraneous variables

what are the 3 experimental designs?

(pilot studies)

repeated measures

independent groups

matched pairs

what are pilot studies?

• small scale study done in advance to see problems such as:

  • experimental design- enough time?

  • instructions- are they clear?

  • measuring equipment- categories and questions are checked and modified

• makes sure money isn’t being wasted

• still represents target population despite being smaller

explain repeated measures

ppts take part in each condition

data is compared to see difference

evaluate repeated measures

strength:

• (1) fewer ppts required so it is less expensive and time consuming
  → can repeat it with extra ppts if they want to have more data

• (2) reduces possibility of ppt variables like individual differences
  → more proof effect on dv is due to iv

limitations:

• (1) order effects can occur.
  practice effects where they perform better
  fatigue might happen when they do worse cause they give up
  → counterpoint: counterbalancing

• (2) demand characteristics
  guessing aim of study and acting to help research or screw you effect

explain independent groups

• 2 separate groups of ppts- do one condition each

• ppts are randomly allocated to ensure there’s no investigator effects and individual differences are reduced

evaluate independent groups

strength:

• (1) avoids order effects as they only do one condition so they’re less likely to get bored or get better at the task

• (2) reduces demand characteristics as they are only taking part in one condition so they’re less likely to guess the aim

limitations:

• (1) more ppts required = more expensive and time consuming to get correct people

• (2) more likely to be affected with ppt variables → e.g. age, sex, backgrounds, iq

explain matched pairs

pairs matched based on key variable like age or iq

one of them does one and the other does the other

evaluate matched pairs

strength:

• (1) reduces ppt variables as they’re matched on similar characteristic

• (2) order effects are less of an issue as they only do one condition
  → less likely to get bored or improve

limitations:

• (1) more time consuming and expensive as more ppts are required as it is hard to find close pairs

• (2) there will still be differences → e.g. 2 60 year olds but one might have high iq and one might have low iq

what is sampling?

selecting ppts from target population since target population is too large to study in entirety

what are the 5 types of sampling

1. random sampling

2. systematic sampling

3. stratified sampling

4. opportunity sampling

5. volunteer sampling

explain random sampling

• every member has equal chance of being selected

• identifies everyone in target pop and either pulls name from hat or uses computer to generate name without bias

evaluate random sampling

strength:

• (1) free from researcher bias as they don’t have any input on who is chosen
  → reduces chance of biased sample

limitations:

• (1) difficult and time consuming to ensure everyone has an equal chance of being chosen

• (2) some ppts might not want to take part

explain systematic sampling

predetermined system to select ppts

→ e.g. every nth person is chosen
→ 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th

go down register/list to do this

evaluate systematic sampling

strength:

• (1) free from researcher bias since they aren’t selected by choice
  → reduces chance of biased sample

limitations:

• (1) every nth person might have a particular characteristic
  → unlikely but possible. generalisation could be difficult

• (2) some ppts might not want to take part

explain stratified sampling

subgroups within population are identified

they are chosen in proportion to their occurrence in population

→ e.g. if class had 12 males and 8 female, sample would be 6 males and 4 females

evaluate stratified sampling

strength:

• (1) free from researcher bias as sample is generated randomly once subgroup has been identified
  → likely to be representative of sample as it is selected in sync

limitations:

• (1) difficult and time consuming to identify correctly → expensive

• (2) subgroup can’t reflect other individual differences → hard to represent proper sample

explain opportunity sampling

• selecting anyone who is available and willing to take part
  → e.g. student on free period

evaluate opportunity sampling

strength:

• (1) convenient as it is quicker and easier so it will save money → most economical

limitations:

• (1) bias- as sample is drawn from specific area or location (e.g. university)
  so only student will be available → not representative of target pop
  increased risk of research bias as they control who they approach

explain volunteer sampling

ppts self select to take part by volunteering when asked or responding to an ADVERT

evaluate volunteer sampling

strength:

• (1) convient as there is minimal effort which makes it quicker, easier and cheaper

limitations:

• (1) bias- particular type of person who see the advert and come forward
  → e.g. more curious and less shy volunteers so not representative of population

name the 6 ethical guidelines

can do, can’t do with ppts

consent

deception

confidentiality

debrief

withdraw

protection from harm

explain consent and how to ensure it

• ppts need to give fully informed consent which means aims should be clear before agreeing to ppts

• this means ppts shouldn’t agree to something that goes against their wishes
  → no coercion
  

• fixed by:

  • prior general consent
    ppts agree to take part in investigation but might involve deception
    → consent to be deceived

  • children as ppts:
    parents give consent for those under 18

  • retrospective consent:
    give consent afterwards if they didn’t know investigation took place

explain deception and how to fix it

• when info is kept from ppt or they are purposefully misled

• prevents fully informed consent
  

• fixed by:

  • debriefing true aim and research of nature and be allowed to withdraw results

explain confidentiality and how to fix it

• ppts personal information is protected by law

• this is to prevent their data and details being used against their wishes
  
  

• fixed by:

  • ppts give full name, number and initials to protect their identities

  • undefineable by anyone or institutional or organisation

explain debrief

must be given all info after experiment if any was withheld

ppts should be given contact details for any further questions

explain withdrawal and how to fix it

ppts have right to withdraw themselves or data at any time

even after research is conducted → must destroy all data

prevent them any stress

• fixed by:

  • at the end of the study, they should be reminded they can remove their data and told this at the beginning

explain protection from harm and how to fix it

• have responsibility to protect from physical or psychological harm (stress or embarassment)

• risk of harm should be no higher than everyday life

• if they are harmed, they may suffer long term

• should enter and exit in same state
  

• fixed by:

  • reminding ppts they can withdraw whenever

  • terminate experiment if harm is higher than expected

  • should be debriefed and referred to counselling if necessary

name 4 types of variables that need to be controlled

1. extraneous variables
   any variable other than iv that can affect dv than the results

2. confounding variables
   evs which are important enough to change dv

3. situational variables
   temperature, lighting, time of day
   → controlled through standardisation

4. ppt variables
   age, gender, intellegence, culture
   → controlled through experimental design like matched pairs, random allocation

how can randomisation present bias?

trials are presented in a random order

explain demand characteristics and how to fix

• when ppt tries to make sense of the research and change behaviour accordingly
  → support or ‘screw you’ effect
  

• controlled by:
  single blind - only researcher knows true aim
  → e.g. placebo used

explain researcher bias

• conciously or unconsciously act in a way to support hypothesis

• can be an issue when observing events when interpretation is needed
  → e.g. children playing roughly as violence
  

• controlled by:
  not allowing ppts or researcher to know aim or identity to known iv
  → double blind
  only person who designed experiment knows

name the 6 types of observations

1. covert

2. overt
   

3. ppt

4. non-ppt
   

5. naturalistic

6. controlled

name 2 types of sampling methods for observations

time sampling

event sampling

explain covert observations

• undisclosed observations (nobody knows)

• e.g. one way mirror (convert non-ppt) or joining group as member (covert ppt)

• informed after it took place

evaluate covert observations

1. strengths:

• investigator effects are less likely as researcher isn’t present
  → less chance of impacting behaviour

• less likely to have demand characteristics
  
  

2. weaknesses:

• ethical issues- can’t give fully informed consent or withdraw

evaluate overt observations

1. strengths:

• investigator effects are less likely as researcher isn’t present
  → less chance of impacting behaviour

• less likely to have demand characteristics
  

2. weaknesses:

• ethical issues- can’t give fully informed consent or withdraw

explain covert observations

open and ppts are aware they’re taking part

e.g. filming publicly (overt non-ppt) or joining a class and informing students you’re observing (overt ppt)

evaluate ppt observations

1. strengths:

• ethical as they can consent
  

2. weaknesses:

• investigator effects

• demand characteristics

explain ppt observations

• person conducting observation also takes part in the activity being observed

• member quietly observing others withiut their knowledge (covert ppt)

• or zimbardo (overt ppt)

evaluate non-ppt observations

1. strengths:

• in depth data- close proximity to ppts allows them to gain unique insights
  → unlikely to overlook behaviour that would be missed by non-ppt
  

2. weaknesses:

• investigator effects

• demand characteristics

explain non-ppt observations

• person conducting observation doesn’t ppt
  → e.g. observer sits in back of room and watches lesson

evaluate non-ppt observations

1. strengths:

• investigator effects are less likely as researcher isn’t present
  → less chance of impacting behaviour

• less likely to have demand characteristics
  

2. weaknesses:

• may miss behaviours of interest as they aren’t close enough

explain naturalistic observations

• done in unaltered setting where observer doesn’t interfere at all
  → e.g. shopping centre

evaluate naturalistic observations

1. strengths:

• higher ecological validity - research records naturally occuring behaviour in normal environment
  → representetive of spontaneous actions

2. weaknesses:

• reliability issues- exact conditions can’t be replicated
  → retest method can’t be done since researcher can’t control variables

explain controlled observations

• under strict conditions- extraneous variables are controlled

• standardised : time, noise, temp, etc

• most commonly overt

evaluate controlled observations

1. strengths:

• replicability due to controlled variables

2. weaknesses:

• external validity- behaviour may not fit real life or change - demand characteristics

explain time sampling

• records behaviour at pre-decided intervals - e.g. every 10 seconds

evaluate time sampling

1. strengths:

• better use of time since fewer observations are made

2. weaknesses:

• not every behaviour wanting to be studied will occur in those frames

explain event sampling

observer records number of times target behaviour occurs

evaluate event sampling

1. strengths:

• every behaviour (in theory) will be counted
  

2. weaknesses:

• some behaviours may be missed if too much is happening

explain behavioural categories

list of target behaviours to be studied- need to be operationalised (defined and observable)

e.g. target behaviour is affection → hugging, kissing, holding hands

list all ways it could potentially occur

no inferences allowed

name 2 types of self report techniques

1. questionarres
   → open and closed

2. interviews
   → structured and unstructured

explain open questions

allows ppt to answer however they want → qualitative data

“what did you think of this shop’s service”

evaluate open questions

1. strengths:

• less researcher bias as can answer without in put from researcher

2. weaknesses:

• social desireability bias

explain closed questions

• restricts ppts to predetermined responses → quantiative data
  → on a scale of 1-10 please rate your experience

• can be done in:

  • checklists

  • likert response scalr (strongly agree to strongly disagree)

  • ranking scale

evaluate closed questions

1. strengths:

• easy to analyse and compare groups/individuals - allows to look for patterns

2. weaknesses:

• researcher can’t pursuit responses any further

• forced choice- may not completely agree

• response bias- ppt might not take time and select random answers

explain questionaire design

• keep terminology simple and clear

• keep as short as possible

• be sensitive- avoid personal questions

• no leading questions

explain structured interviews

• decided on questions in advance and asked in exactly the same order each time

• interview schedule used and record by taking notes

evaluate structured interviews

1. strengths:

• easier to analyse since it’s quantiative data and allows direct comparisons to be made

• standardised to easy to replicate

2. weaknesses:

• investigator effects- may conciously or unconciously influence results → e.g. body lanaguage, tone of voice

explain unstructured interviews

• more like conversation than a set of questions

• very little is decided on in advance except topic

• lots of qualitative data

• recorded not written down

• more relaxed

evaluate unstructured interviews

1. strengths:

• reduces researcher bias as they aren’t controlling conversation

• ppt is just talking so demand characteristics aren’t as common

• qualitative data so interviewer can gain more info

2. weaknesses:

• more time consuming as it requires trained psychologist

• hard to compare data

explain the 2 functions of peer review

1. research read each other’s research to keep in touch with new ways of thinking
   might be able to improve or disprove a theory
   knowledge is able to grow
   

2. studies which are to be published need to be criticised so poor quality research doesn’t go to public domain
   universities gain funding on quality of previous research

explain the process of peer review

1. researcher submits paper to journal

2. editor sends it to other experts in the same field who review it critically

3. experts make recommendation about quality of work

4. researcher makes changes and then submits again

what are limitations of peer review

1. status quo
   science is conservative and resistant to large changes in opinion (paradigm shift)
   

2. reviewer bias
   reviewer may hold opposing view
   although it should be anonymous it can be used to settle scores
   may favour research from friends or collegeues
   

3. institution bias
   research from prestigious unis is favoured
   

4. gender bias
   male researchers are preferred

explain how to write aims

• always have research quesrion

• aim always start with ‘to examine the effect of…’

what are ivs?

what changes

what are dvs?

what is measured

explain case studies

• detailed analysis of one individual or real life event
  → experimental or non-experimental methids

• often used where behaviour is rare
  → too unique for larger study

• starting point for further research → e.g. tan led to understanding of broca’s area

name 2 strengths of case studies

• rich detailed info about situation and unique circumstances

• circumstances that are not ethical to study otherwise like 9/11

name 2 limitations of case studies

• methodological issues- difficult to generalise any findings to wider popular since results are likely unique
  → external validity is low

• investigator bias- too subjective
  → e.g. little hans, freud used leading questions
  → no scientific or experimental evidence to support freud and so lacks validity

what are correlations?

• non-experimental methods used to measure how strong relationship is between 2 or more variables

• leads to further studies to see if one variable is affecting each other
  → e.g. cigarette smoking and lung cancer

explain positive correlations

as one variable increases, the other does too

e.g. height and shoe size

explain negative correlations

as one variable increases the other decreases

e.g. time spent studying and amount of errors made on test

explain negative correlations

no relationship between variables

rainfull and number of people who watched harry potter

what do scattergrams for correlations look like?

name 2 strengths of correlations

• correlational studies provide basis for further research

• ethical as informed consent isn’t necessary as info is public
  → e.g. gov reports

name a limitation of correlations

• not possible to establish cause and effect → cannot conclude for sure one variable caused the increase/decrease of another of diff variables

what is meant by descriptive statistics?

when quantiative data has been collected and needs to be summarised so reader can understand without going thru lots of results

evaluate the mean

strength: considers all data

weakness: sensitive because any extreme scores can skew results

evaluate median

strengths: not easily distorted by extreme results so best for heavily skewed results
easy to calcuate

weaknesses: doesn’t reflect all scores in data set

evaluate mode

strength: not distorted by extreme results
can be used for categorical data

weaknesses: can be multi-modal or have no mode at all so not always useful

name 3 measures of central tendency

1. mean

2. median

3. mode

name 2 measures of dispersion

1. range

2. standard deviation

evaluate range

strengths: easy to calculate

weaknesses: doesn’t indicate distribution pattern across data
uses most extreme results so may not be representtive

evaluate standard deviation

strength: precise measurement because all values are included

weakness: extremes can distort

how do you calculate percentages

number of ppts improved by revising/ number of ppts x 100

(12/20 × 100)

bottom number is always total number

how to calculate % increase?

new number-original number = increase
15 - 12= 3

increase/original x 100
3 / 12 × 100 =25

how to calculate % decrease?

original number - new number = decrease
20-14=6

decrease/original x 100= % decrease
6 / 20 × 100= 30%

what is primary data?

• data collected for the research
  → e.g. reporting directly to researcher or through first hand observations

evaluate primary data

strength: collected with purpose of that research so had high level of control and info is relevant

weakness: designing, sampling, carrying out study takes a lot of time and effort so is more expensive

explain secondary data

info carried out with purpose other than that specific research
→ e.g. consensus or statistics abt mental health from nhs