UK Politics- Democracy and Participation (Also includes Referendums

What is a representative democracy?

Representative democracy is when people vote for politicians who make decisions on their behalf

What is a direct democracy?

Direct democracy is when people vote directly on issues and laws themselves, instead of electing others to decide

4 criteria a representative democracy must meet?

• Representation- Those who are elected must act in the best interests of the citizens they have been chosen by, and represent their views effectively

• Participation- People should have a means through which they can get involved in politics in a manner of their choosing

• Accountability- This refers to the means through which government has to explain and take responsibility for their actions, this also includes allowing people to scrutinse the actions of elected officals, and if necessary, having the ability to remove them

• Legitmacy- For government to be seen as having the right to excercise authority, they must have been fairly chosen by the people.

Example of the criteria of representation?

As per the FPTP system, the MP in each constituency has to win the largest number of votes in order to win the seat for their party.

Labour (2024)- Won 411 seats despite only gaining 33% of the popular vote

Example of the criteria of participation?

E petitions. They allow citizens to directly engage with the political system outside elections. If a receives over 100,000 signatures, the Petitions Committee will consider the petition for a debate in Parliament.

Assisted Dying e-petition (2024)- the issue at hand here was legalising assisted dying for terminally ill adults, it received over 200,000 signatures. The gov responded, the issue was debated in Westminister Hall, and no change in the law followed from this

Example of the criteria of accountability?

Recall of MPs Act (2015)- Allows voters to remove an MP and trigger a by-election if the MP was convicted of a crime, suspended from Parliament for misconduct, or found guility of falsifying expenses. Minimum of 10% of local voters must sign the petition for this to happen

Example is Fiona Onasanya who was convicted for perverting the course of justice for lying about speeding offences

Example of the criteria of legitimacy?

By convention, it is only when the leader of a poltical party can command a majority seat in the House of Commons following an election (326 seats out of 650) that they are invited to form a government

3 benefits of a representative democracy for the UK?

• Pratical for large populations

• Accountability of representatives

• Prevents ‘tyranny of the majority’

Example of ‘Practical for large populations’ as a benefit of a representative democracy?

CoronaVirus Act (2020)- Parliament passed this 350-page law in just a few days to respond to public health and economic emergencies.

It would have been impossible for all citizens to vote on this legislation directly, showing why representative democracy is practical

Example of ‘Accountability of representatives’ as a benefit of a representative democracy?

Boris Johnson (2021)- During PMQs Johnson was questioned on his COVID-19 policy, showing direct scrutiny.

This is significant as it ensures that representatives are responsive to citizens’ needs and concerns, improving the trust in government and the quality of decision-making

Example of 'Protection against tyranny of the majority’ as a benefit of a representative democracy?

Assisted Dying E-petition (2024)- over 200,000 people supported legalising assisted dying, but MPs debated the issue and the government rejected a law change to protect vulnerable groups (such as terminally ill people who may be pressued into assisted suicide) and ethical standards

This is significant as it demonstrates how representative democracy balances majority opinion with long-term ethical and minority considerations.

3 negative aspects of a representative democracy in UK?

• MPs may not fully represent publics opinon

• Citizens have limited influence between elections

• Influence of unelected officials

Example of how ‘MPs may not fully represent publics opinons’ as a negative aspect of representative democracy in the UK?

Labour (2024)- Despite winning 411 seats, they only gained 33% of the popular vote.

This shows under-representation of smaller parties and dissatisfaction among voters.

Example of ‘Citizens have limited influence between elections’ as a negative aspect of representative democracy in the UK?

People can only vote every few years, limiting their ability to influence government decisions on real time. E.g Assited Dying E-petition (2024) over 200,000 people signed, but Parliament rejected the proposal, showing that public opinion doesn’t always translate into policy

Demonstrates a weakness of representative democracy, as citizens rely on elected officals to act on their behalf rather than being able to make decisions directly

Example of ‘Influence of unelected officials’ as a negative aspect of representative democracy in the UK?

92 Hereditary Peers still remain in the House of Lords, and they get to amend of delay legislation without being elected.

This undermines the democratic principle of elected representation because citizens have no direct control over the actions of unelected offiiclas, reducing legitimacy.

Counter this with the Hereditary Peers Act 2026

3 features of a representative democracy

• People vote for representative

• Representatives can be held accountable

• Representatives make decisions

Example of ‘people voting for representatives’ as a feature of a representative democracy

In 2024 around 28.8 million voted across all constituencies to elect MPs to the House of Commons, turnout was 59.7%

Example of ‘representatives can be held accountable’ as a feature of a representative democracy

Recall of MPs Act (2015)- Allows voters to remove an MP and trigger a by-election if the MP was convicted of a crime, suspended from Parliament for misconduct, or found guilty of falsifying expenses. At least 10% of local voters must sign the petition for this to happen.

Notable Example is Fiona Onasanya who perverted the course of justice, lying about speeding offences

Example of ‘representatives making decisions’ as a feature of a representative democracy

Heidi Allen- She defied the Conservative whip during the Brexit calamity, voting in Parliament to ensure that Parliament gets a legal gurantee on the final Brexit deal struck with Brussels in 2017. Make this decision as an MP to represent her remain-voting constituency

3 ways electoral equality has been expanded?

• Gender Equality

• Age Equality

• Class/Property Equality

Example of ‘Gender Equality’ and how it has led to electoral equality being expanded?

ROPA (1928)- Gave all women over 21 the right to vote

This achieved full gender equality in voting, making men and women equal participants in elections

Example of ‘Age Equality’ and how it has led to electoral equality being expanded?

ROPA (1969)- Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18

Gave young adults the right to vote, increasing the representiveness of the electorate

Example of ‘Class/Property Equality’ and how it has led to electoral equality being expanded?

ROPA (1918)- Removed most property qualifications for men.

Allowed working-class men to vote, reducing political inequality based on wealth

What is the meaning of franchise?

The right to vote

3 reasons why the franchise was extended?

• More people should have a say

• Pressure from campaigns and protests

• Reward from contributing during the war

Example of ‘more people should have a say’ as a reason to why the franchise was extended

ROPA (1969)- This lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, giving young adults the right to vote.

Elections were unfair because not all adults could vote, extending the vote gave more people a voice in politics

Example of ‘pressure from campaigns and protests’ as a reason to why the franchise was exteneded

Suffragette Movement (1910-1914)- Protests, hunger strikes and petitions pushed for women to get the vote.

Activisits demanded change and forced politicians to act

Example of ‘reward for contributions during war’ as a reason to why the franchise was extended

WW1- led to the ROPA 1918, which extended the franchise to men and some women in recogntion of their efforts during the war.

People who helped in wars were seen as deserving a say in government

What is universal sufferage?

Universal sufferage means everyone in a society who is legally allowed to vote can do so, regardless of gender, wealth, class or race.

3 movements that have contributed to the development of universal sufferage

• Chartists

• Suffragists

• Suffragettes

Who were the ‘Chartists’ and how did they contribute to the development of universal sufferage? (3 movements that have contributed to the development of universal sufferage)

Charists were a mass movement emerging from London in 1836, under leadership of William Lovett, which called for universal manhood suffrage for men over 21.

Used tactics like mass petitions, example of one petition containing 5 million signatures in 1848

Who were the ‘Suffragists’ and how did they contribute to the development of universal sufferage? (3 movements that have contributed to the development of universal suffrage)

Suffragists were led by Millicent Fawcett and wanted the vote for women to be on equal terms with men.

Used tactics like demonstrations/marches, example of Hyde Park Rally in 1913 in which there was 50,000 people in attendance

Who were the ‘Suffragettes’ and how did they contribute to the development of universal sufferage? (3 movements that have contributed to the development of universal suffrage)

Suffragettes were led by Emmeline Pankhurst, who was fighting for immediate votes for women.

Used tactics which usually contained violence, for example they burned MPs homes and attacked Oxford Street as well as St Pauls in December 1910

2 reasons why we should let prisoners have the vote

• Core democratic right, so denying it undermines democracy, e.g not allowing them to vote is a breach of Article 3 Protocl 1 of ECHR

• It encourages civil responsibility, it helps them integrate back into society making them less likely to reoffend

2 reasons why we shouldn’t let prisoners have the vote

• Justice system is about punishment,

• They shouldn’t be treated the same as law-abiding citiznes, e.g 63% of people oppose prisoners voting, whereas 8% of people are in support of them voting. (YouGov Poll 2012)

2 reasons why 16-17 year olds should have the vote

• Starting voting younger can create lifelong poltical participation, e.g in the 2014 Independence Referendum 75% of 16-17 year olds voted

• People can work, pay taxes and join army ‘taxation without representation’

2 reasons why 16-17 year old shouldn’t have the vote

• Their engagement isn’t consistent, e.g only 45% of 16-17 year olds registered to vote in the Wales 2021 election

• Lack of poltical maturity, only 28% of 16-17 year old could name the Chancellor (YouGov Poll)

Evidence to show representative democracy is in crisis in the UK

• Turnout has fallen from 84% in 1950 to 59.7% in 2024

• FPTP distorts results. Reform UK got about 4.1 million votes (14% of popular vote) but only gained 5 seats

Evidence to show that representative democracy isn’t in crisis in the UK

• High engagement in referendums, e.g 72% turnout in Brexit

• Courts can check the government, e.g Miller 2 (2019), the court ruled Johnson’s prorogation unlawful.

3 ways citizens can participate in the UK political system?

• E-petitions

• Membership of poltical parties

• Through voting

Example of ‘E-petitions’ as a way citizens can participate in the UK political system

Article 50 (2019)- Largest e-petition in UK history, with over 6.1 million signatures as of April 2019.

Insignificant as they are not law-abiding, Parliament can just dismiss then after the debate in Westminister Hall

Example of ‘Membership of political parties’ as a way citizens can participate in the UK political system

There is an annual fee of £39 to join the Conservative Party, which allows people to vote in conservative leadership elections and help choose a candidate

Insignificant as £39 may limit participation, meaning party membership is not equally accessible to all citizens

Example of ‘Voting’ as a way of citizens can participate in the UK political system

Brexit (2016)- 52% of people voted leave, and that is what happened after the referendum.

Significant as it shows that public actually have the power to make decisions.

2 ways to identify a participation crisis in the UK?

• Low levels of turnout

• Impact of informal mechanisms

Evidence of low turnout in elections?

• 67% (2019) to 59.7% (2024)

Counter could be that it rose from 59% (2001) to 69% (2017)

Evidence informal mechanisms don’t have an impact?

No e-petition has directly led to chnage in government policy. Article 50 e-petition gained 6.1 million signatures but led to no change in policy.

What is a democratic deficit?

A democratic deficit occurs when organisations/institutions (such as government) do not fulfill the principles of democracy in how they operate. The principles include, representation, legitimacy, participation, and accountability.

3 methods through which political participation can be enhanced in the UK

• Lowering the voting age

• Electoral Reform

• Providing politcal education

Evidence for ‘lowering the voting age’ as a method through which political participation can be enhanced?

IndyRef (2014)- 75% of 16-17 year olds voted in this referendum regarding Scottish Independence

Evidence for ‘electoral reform; as a method through which political participation can be enhanced?

FPTP distorts election results, e.g Reform got 4.1 million votes but only gained 5 seats (14.3% of the popular vote)

Reforming the electoral system to a more proportional system could make votes feel more meaningful

Evidence of ‘providing poltical education’ as method through which poltical participation can be enhanced?

Providing political education, particularly those who are younger, so they can make informed decisions when it comes to voting and choosing the right party for them.

In a YouGov Poll only 28% of 16-17 year olds could name the Chancellor

3 ways through which direct democracy has been used in the UK

• Referendums

• E-petitions

• Citizens Assmebly

Example of ‘Referendums’ as a way direct democracy has been used in the UK

Brexit (2016)- 52% voted leave, and we left

Gave a direct public mandate for the UK to leave the EU

Example of ‘E-petitions’ as a way direct democracy has been used in the UK?

Article 50 (2019)- This was to revoke Article 50 and this e-petition received 6.1 million signatures by March 2019

Insignificant as they are not legally binding, so can’t actually led to a chnage in government policy

Example of ‘Citizens Assembly’ as a way direct democracy has been used in the UK?

A citizens assembly is a group of ordinary people, chosen at random to represent the wider population, who come together to discuss and make recommendations on an important issue

UK Climate Assembly (2020)- Group of citizens (108) were delegated to discuss how the UK should reach its net zero carbon emissions target by 2050. Many different topics were covered such as travel and how electricity should be generated

What needs to happen in order for a referendum to be used in the UK?

A referendum in the UK can only happen if Parliament passes a law allowing it. The government proposes the referendum, then legislation to set up the referendum is passed in Parliament, including the date as to when it will be held. All of this is run under rules set by the electoral commission (a statutory body created by Parliament to oversee elections and referendums in the UK)

3 reasons why a government might hold a referendum in the UK?

• To resolve contentious issues

• To gain legitmacy for a major decision

• To manage internal party divisions

Example of ‘to resolve contentious issues’ as a reason why a government might hold a referendum

Governments may use a referendum to settle divisive or controversial issues where there is no clear parliamentary consensus.

Brexit (2016)- The EU Referendum resolved the debate over EU membership

Example of ‘to gain legitimacy for major decisions’ as a reason why a government might hold a referendum?

Holding a referendum can give the government a mandate from the public, strenghtening the legitimacy of major constitutional or policy changes.

AV Referendum (2011)- This gave legitimacy to keep the FPTP electoral system

Example of ‘to manage internal party divisions’ as a reason why a government might hold a referendum?

Governments may hold a referendum to unite or manage splits within their own party on controversial policies.

IndyRef (2014)- This was a major internal issue for both major parties, both were worried about issues of internal split, some MPs wanted to give Scotland more powers and others opposed independence directly. By holding a referendum the government put the decision in the hands of Scottish voters instead of forcing MPs to take sides internally, and this avoided deep conflicts within the parties

What happened in the AV Referendum 2011?

This was a referendum held to change the UK voting system for general elections from FPTP to the AV system.

• Turnout was 42%

• 68% to keep FPTP and 32% voted yes for AV. So proposal of AV was rejected

This referendum showed a use of direct democracy to give public legitimacy to a constitutional decision

This referendum was one of the Lib Dems key pledges as part of their coalition deal with the Conservatives. This served as a major political defeat for the Lib Dems

What happened in the Scottish Independence Referendum 2014?

This referendum was held to settle the constitutional question of Scottish Independence

• Turnout was 84%

• 55% voted ‘no’ to independence, and 45% voted ‘yes’. So Scotland remained as part of the UK

This referendum helped the UK government manage internal party divisions by letting Scottish voters decide, rather than forcing MPs to take sides

What happened in the Brexit Referendum 2016?

This referendum was to resolve the long-standing issue of UK membership to the EU

• Turnout was 72%

• 52% voted to leave, and 48% voted to remain. So the UK government ended up triggering Article 50, leading to the UK’s departure from the EU in 2020

This was an example of direct democracy on major constitutional and politcal issue

3 positives of referendums in the UK?

• Increases democratic legitimacy

• Checks the power of the government and Parliament

• Encourages political participation and engagement

Example of how referendums ‘increase democratic legitimacy’?

Brexit (2016)- Provided a direct public mandate for the UK to leave the EU, making the decision more legitimate than if it had been solely decided by Parliament

Example of how referendums ‘check the power of government and Parliament’?

AV Referendum (2011)- This referendum prevented the government from changing the elctoral system, showing the Parliament could not impose reform without voter consent

Example of how referendums ‘encourage political participation and engagement’?

IndyRef (2014)- Turnout was 85%, one of the highest in UK voting history, demonstrating stong public engagement.

3 negatives of referendums in the UK?

• Referendums can undermine Parlimentary Sovereignty

• Complex issues can be oversimplified

• Can be influenced by media campaigns

Example of referendums ‘undermining Parliamentary sovereignty’?

Brexit (2016)- This referendum required Parliament to implement the decision to leave the EU depsite many MPs and experts warning about economic and legal risks, undermining Parliamentary Sovereignty

Example of referendums ‘oversimplifying complex issues’

AV Referendum (2011)- It asked voters to approve a new voting system, but many voters did not understand how it worked.

Example of referendums ‘being influenced by media campaigns’

IndyRef (2014)- Both sides ran intensive campaigns, an example of one campaign could be ‘Better Together’, which was a key campaign supporting Scotland to stay a part of the UK.