American History Semester 2 Exam Study Guide

The Goal of the Federal Reserve System

to promote a safe, flexible, and stable monetary and financial system for the United States

Purpose of Anti-trust Laws and the Federal Trade Commission

Antitrust laws are designed to protect economic competition by preventing business practices that create or maintain monopolies and restrain trade. These laws aim to benefit consumers by ensuring lower prices, higher quality products, and more innovation. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is the independent federal agency that enforces these laws to ensure markets remain open and free from deceptive or unfair practices.

Impact of Mass Production on the Automobile Industry

The mass production of automobiles, pioneered by Henry Ford in 1913, transformed cars from high-class novelties into affordable, essential tools for the general public. By implementing the moving assembly line, Ford reduced the production time of a single vehicle from more than 12 hours to just 93 minutes

Impact of Rising Disposable Income on the Economy

Rising disposable income (money left after taxes) acts as a primary driver of economic growth, primarily by boosting consumer spending, which accounts for approximately two-thirds of U.S. economic activity. As disposable income rises, households generally spend more on goods and services, stimulating production, employment, and overall economic expansion

The purpose of the anti-trust laws and the FTC

Antitrust laws exist to promote vigorous economic competition and protect consumers from anticompetitive mergers and business practices. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is one of the two primary federal agencies—alongside the Department of Justice (DOJ)—responsible for enforcing these rules to ensure markets remain open and free

The Significance of the 1921 Tulsa race riots

The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre (historically termed a "riot") is considered one of the deadliest and most devastating acts of racial violence in United States history, representing a deliberate destruction of black economic prosperity and a profound failure of civic, state, and law enforcement authorities to protect citizens. Over 18 hours between May 31 and June 1, 1921, a white mob destroyed the thriving Greenwood District, known as "Black Wall Street," killing an estimated 100 to 300 people and leaving 35 city blocks in ruins

The Goal of the NAACP

Founded in 1909, the NAACP is the nation's oldest civil rights organization, dedicated to achieving political, educational, social, and economic equality while eliminating race-based discrimination. Its core mission is to secure rights for all persons, particularly focusing on the well-being and economic security of Black people and people of color through advocacy, litigation, and lobbying

The beliefs of Marcus Garvey

Marcus Garvey (1887–1940) was a Jamaican-born Black nationalist and Pan-Africanist who championed Black pride, economic self-reliance, and the "Back-to-Africa" movement. Through his organization, the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), he advocated for racial separatism, unity among people of African descent, and the creation of an independent African nation, influencing later movements like Rastafari.

Effect of the Harlem Renaissance

The Harlem Renaissance (roughly 1918–1937) was a transformative cultural, social, and artistic explosion that fostered a new "New Negro" identity, instilling pride and self-determination in African Americans. It challenged racist stereotypes, integrated Black culture into mainstream American arts, and laid the intellectual groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement

The approach to international affairs in the US favored after WW1

After WWI, the United States largely favored isolationism, retreating from European political affairs to focus on domestic "normalcy," while simultaneously promoting economic policies and arms control agreements to maintain peace without military entanglements. Although President Wilson championed idealistic internationalism via the League of Nations, the U.S. Senate rejected it, fostering a desire to avoid foreign conflicts

The examples of political corruption in the Harding administration

Political corruption in the Harding administration (1921–1923) was characterized by widespread graft and bribery, largely driven by the "Ohio Gang"—friends and political allies appointed to high positions who abused their power for personal gain. The scandals, including the Teapot Dome, the Veterans Bureau scandal, and illegal dealings by the Justice Department, represented one of the most corrupt eras in U.S. history

The effect of prohibition on the US

Prohibition, effective from 1920 to 1933 under the 18th Amendment, significantly transformed American society by inadvertently fostering organized crime, eroding public health, and reshaping the federal government's role in daily life.

The goal of the Federal Reserve system

The Federal Reserve's primary goal is to promote a safe, flexible, and stable monetary and financial system for the United States. Its most well-known objective is the "Dual Mandate" established by Congress: to achieve maximum employment and stable prices (interpreted as a 2% long-run inflation target).

The goals of the Washington Naval Conference and the Kellogg-Briand Pact

The Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922) aimed to prevent a post-WWI naval arms race, reduce defense spending, and ease tensions in East Asia, resulting in naval tonnage restrictions. The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) sought to outlaw war as an instrument of national policy, aiming to settle disputes peacefully

The efforts of Margaret Sanger

Margaret Sanger (1879–1966) was a pioneering nurse and activist who founded the birth control movement in the U.S., coining the term "birth control" in 1914. She opened the first birth control clinic in 1916, founded the American Birth Control League (1921)—a precursor to Planned Parenthood—and spearheaded the development of the first oral contraceptive pill.

The significance of the Scopes trial

The Scopes Trial, formally known as The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes (1925), remains a definitive moment in American history for its dramatization of the conflict between modern science and religious fundamentalizm.

Goals of Huey Long (The "Kingfish")

• Goals of Huey Long (The "Kingfish")

• "Share Our Wealth" Program: A radical program designed to limit poverty by capping personal fortunes at $5-$8 million, limiting inheritances to $5 million, and taxing incomes over $1 million.

• Redistribution: Proposed guaranteeing every family an annual income of $2,500 (enough for a home, automobile, and radio) and a homestead allowance.

• Social Benefits: Advocated for free college education, pensions for the elderly, veteran benefits, and a 30-hour workweek.

• Context: He intended to run against FDR in 1936, challenging the New Deal from the left as not radical enough.

Contempt for Hoover

• Hoovervilles: Shantytowns built by the homeless were sarcastically named after him.

• Hoover Blankets: Newspapers used by the homeless to keep warm.

• Hoover Hogs: Rabbits hunted for food.

• Hoover Wagons: Mules or horses pulling broken-down automobiles.

• "If you don't give me a ride, I'll vote for Hoover": A popular sign held by hitchhikers, signaling his perceived failure

Impact of the National Labor Relations Act

• Also known as the Wagner Act, it established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB).

• Guaranteed Rights: Gave employees the legal right to form unions, engage in collective bargaining, and take action to improve working conditions without fear of retaliation.

• Impact: Led to a massive surge in union membership (from ~3 million in 1933 to ~15 million by 1946) and empowered industrial, unskilled workers.

• Limits: It largely excluded agricultural and domestic workers, disproportionately affecting women and people of color

FDR’s Court-Packing Scheme

• Goal: Frustrated by the Supreme Court ruling New Deal programs (like the AAA and NRA) unconstitutional, FDR proposed the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937.

• Method: Proposed adding one new justice for every justice over 70, allowing him to add up to six new, liberal justices to the nine-member court.

• Outcome: Congress rejected the plan, seeing it as an attack on judicial independence. However, the Court began upholding New Deal legislation soon after—a move known as "the switch in time that saved nine".

Hoover’s Approach to the Great Depression

• "Voluntarism": Initially believed in limited government intervention, encouraging businesses to voluntarily maintain wages and workers to use private charity.

• Indirect Aid: Reluctant to provide direct "dole" to individuals, believing it weakened morale. Instead, used the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to lend money to banks and businesses.

• Smoot-Hawley Tariff: Signed a high tariff in 1930 to protect American industry, which ultimately caused international trade to plummet, worsening the Depression. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Goals of Social Security (1935)

• Provide Safety Net: Established a system of old-age benefits for workers, benefits for victims of industrial accidents, unemployment insurance, and aid for dependent mothers and children.

• Long-term Stability: Intended to protect people from the immediate hardships of the Depression and prevent future elderly poverty.

Goals of the Public Works Administration (PWA)

• Job Creation: Part of the New Deal, it aimed to reduce unemployment by creating large-scale public works projects.

• Infrastructure: Built major infrastructure projects, including schools, hospitals, dams, and bridges

Goals of The New Deal

• Goals (The Three Rs):

  • Relief: Immediate aid for the unemployed and poor.

  • Recovery: Economic recovery for farmers and businesses.

  • Reform: Financial reforms to prevent another Depression (e.g., FDIC, SEC).

• Effect: Did not fully end the Depression (WWII did), but it prevented total economic collapse, provided vital relief, and fundamentally shifted the role of the federal government in the economy.

• Criticisms: Conservatives believed it was socialist, too expensive, and threatened individual liberty; liberals/radicals (like Huey Long) believed it didn't redistribute enough wealth

Programs of The New Deal

Programs:

AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Act): Raised crop prices by lowering production.

CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps): Employed young men in environmental projects.

WPA (Works Progress Administration): Hired millions for public building projects.

FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation): Insured bank deposits.

Effect of the New Deal

Effect: Did not fully end the Depression (WWII did), but it prevented total economic collapse, provided vital relief, and fundamentally shifted the role of the federal government in the economy.

Criticisms of the New Deal

Criticisms: Conservatives believed it was socialist, too expensive, and threatened individual liberty; liberals/radicals (like Huey Long) believed it didn't redistribute enough wealth

Causes of the Dust Bowl

Environmental factors: A severe, multi-year drought in the Great Plains.

Human factors: Poor agricultural practices, including deep plowing and the removal of native grasses, which led to widespread soil erosion when high winds arrived

Bonus Army Incident

What happened: WWI veterans marched on Washington D.C. to demand early payment of bonuses promised for their service.

Outcome: Congress refused. Hoover ordered the army (led by Douglas MacArthur) to remove the veterans from their shantytowns, resulting in violence and destroying Hoover's reputation.

Frances Perkins

Role: The first woman to serve in a presidential cabinet as Secretary of Labor (1933–1945).

Impact: A key architect of the New Deal, she was instrumental in crafting the Social Security Act and advocating for labor standards, including minimum wage and child labor laws

Government Treatment of Native Americans

Indian Reorganization Act (1934): Also known as the Wheeler-Howard Act, it reversed the Dawes Act's policy of assimilation. It aimed to restore tribal land, encourage self-government, and preserve native culture, marking a positive shift in federal policy

SCOTUS and the New Deal

Why they were declared unconstitutional: The Supreme Court (specifically in cases like Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States for the NRA) ruled that some New Deal programs violated the separation of powers by delegating legislative authority to the executive branch.

Constitutional Basis: The Court argued that the federal government was overreaching its interstate commerce power, intruding on state rights

Efforts Taken to Avoid World War 1

Efforts Taken to Avoid WWII (1933–1937)

During the mid-1930s, Western powers aimed to avoid another major conflict through diplomacy and non-intervention, though these efforts ultimately failed. [1]

Policy of Appeasement: Britain and France made concessions to Hitler to avoid war, such as allowing the remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936).

U.S. Neutrality Acts: Congress passed laws (1935–1937) prohibiting the sale of arms, loans, or travel to nations at war, aiming to keep the U.S. isolated.

League of Nations: Attempted diplomatic pressure to halt Italian aggression in Ethiopia (1935) and Japanese aggression in China (1937), but failed due to lack of enforcement power.

German-British Naval Agreement (1935): A bilateral pact designed to limit German naval expansion, though it effectively allowed Germany to rearm in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Causes of World War 2

Treaty of Versailles (1919): The harsh reparations and territorial losses imposed on Germany created immense resentment.

Rise of Fascism/Totalitarianism: The rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany and expansionist policies in Italy and Japan.

Great Depression: Economic collapse paved the way for radical leaders who promised economic recovery through territorial expansion.

Failure of Appeasement: Allowing Germany to annex Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia only emboldened Hitler, rather than satisfying him.

Japanese Aggression: Japan invaded Manchuria (1931) and launched a full-scale invasion of China (1937).

The Invasion of Poland: On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, prompting Britain and France to declare war. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Reasons for Tensions Between the US and Japan

Japanese Invasion of China: The U.S. favored China and opposed Japan’s expansionist policies in Asia.

Economic Sanctions & Oil Embargo: In response to Japan occupying French Indochina, the US froze Japanese assets in 1941, depriving Japan of 94% of its oil supply.

Military Clashes: The sinking of the U.S. gunboat Panay in 1937 by Japanese aircraft.

Racial Tensions: Discriminatory US immigration laws (1924) and the rejection of the Racial Equality Proposal at Versailles (1919) fueled anti-American sentiment in Japan

Date of the Bombing of Pearl Harbour

December 7, 1941

Truman’s reasons for using the atomic bomb

to force a swift surrender, aiming to avoid a costly land invasion of Japan (Operation Downfall) projected to cause massive Allied casualties

Development of the atomic bomb

driven by the top-secret U.S.-led Manhattan Project during World War II, created to prevent Nazi Germany from developing nuclear weapons first

The efforts to prevent future wars after WWII

Following WWII, the international community created the United Nations (UN) and forged new economic, diplomatic, and military alliances to prevent future global conflict by addressing the structural failures of the previous League of Nations

The racial tensions in the US during WWII

characterized by the "Double V" campaign, widespread discrimination in the segregated armed forces, and significant domestic race riots—most notably in Detroit in 1943—sparked by the migration of minority workers into new industrial jobs

The reasons for the internment of Japanese Americans

The internment of over 120,000 Japanese Americans during World War II—roughly two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens—was driven by a combination of long-standing racial prejudice, intense wartime hysteria, and a failure of political leadership, rather than evidence of widespread disloyalty. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, authorizing the military to remove any person from designated "military areas”

SCOTUS rulings about Japanese American internment

exclusion orders and curfews under the guise of "military necessity”

The reasons for food rationing

to distribute limited resources fairly during times of scarcity

The efforts to support the war effort undertaken on the American homefront

conservation, manufacturing, and organized drives

The role of women in WWII

millions of women stepped up globally to support the war effort

Impact of WWII on African Americans, Japanese Americans, and Mexicans / Mexican-Americans

transformed the social and economic standing of marginalized groups in the U.S

Role of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team

Composed almost entirely of Japanese American soldiers (Nisei), many of whom had families confined in US internment camps, the 442nd RCT was activated in 1943 and fought with the motto "Go For Broke"

Efforts of the Office of Price Administration (OPA)

Established in August 1941 and formalized in 1942, the OPA was tasked with protecting the civilian economy from inflation and rationing scarce goods for the war effort

What a cold war is

a prolonged period of geopolitical, ideological, and economic rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union (and their respective allies) lasting from the end of World War II in 1945 until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991

Goal of the Marshall Plan

to aid the economic recovery of war-torn Western Europe following World War II while preventing the spread of Soviet communism and establishing stable democratic institutions

Why the United States and NATO was created

to prevent future global conflict

How the US overthrew hostile governments

The United States has utilized a range of methods—spanning covert actions, direct military interventions, and economic pressure—to influence or overthrow governments it considers hostile or contrary to its strategic interests

The early efforts in the Space Race

a Cold War competition between the US and the Soviet Union, starting with the launch of the Soviet Sputnik 1 in 1957

The significance of the Cuban missile crisis.

the closest the world has ever come to global nuclear war

The purpose of the Bretton Woods Agreement

The Bretton Woods Agreement, established by 44 allied nations in 1944 at the Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, aimed to stabilize the post-WWII global economy, restore international trade, and prevent the competitive currency devaluations that worsened the Great Depression

How the United States tried to stop the spread of communism.

The United States tried to stop the spread of communism during the Cold War (roughly 1947–1991) primarily through a policy known as containment, which aimed to isolate the Soviet Union and prevent the expansion of communist ideology, particularly to war-ravaged Europe and Asia. This strategy was based on the "domino theory," which assumed that if one country fell to communism, neighboring nations would inevitably follow

The Berlin Blockade/Airlift

The Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948–1949) was the first major international crisis of the Cold War. In an attempt to force the Western Allies out of the city, the Soviet Union blocked all ground routes into West Berlin. The United States and United Kingdom responded by flying in over \(2.3\text{ million}\) tons of supplies

Why the Berlin Wall was built

The Berlin Wall was built by East Germany in August 1961 to stop a massive “brain drain” and economic collapse. Prior to its construction, millions of highly educated and skilled East Germans had fled the communist state for a better standard of living in the West

What was meant by the Iron Curtain

The Iron Curtain was the ideological, military, and physical boundary that divided Europe into two separate areas—Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe and democratic Western Europe—from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. It represented an iron-clad barrier that blocked the Soviet Union and its satellite states from open contact with the West

Why the Korean War was fought

North Korea invaded South Korea to unify the peninsula under a communist regime

Eisenhower’s policy of brinkmanship

President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s policy of brinkmanship was a Cold War strategy of escalating tensions to the "brink" of nuclear conflict to force an opponent to back down. Championed by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, it relied on the threat of "massive retaliation" rather than costly conventional ground wars

Nixon’s policy of detente

Nixon’s policy of détente was a strategic shift in U.S. foreign policy away from Cold War confrontation toward pragmatic engagement with communist powers. Championed by President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger, it utilized diplomacy and arms control to ease tensions with the Soviet Union and China

Goal of the Helsinki Accords

reduce Cold War tensions between the Soviet bloc and the West by fostering greater cooperation, stability, and security in Europe

How Gorbachev led the USSR

Mikhail Gorbachev led the USSR by attempting to save the communist state through major economic restructuring and political liberalization. As the final General Secretary and President from 1985 to 1991, his policies unintentionally dismantled the one-party system and catalyzed the dissolution of the Soviet Union

American Preparation for Nuclear War

"Duck and Cover" Drills: Schools routinely drilled children to hide under desks, famously illustrated by the 1952 film featuring "Bert the Turtle," designed to teach that nuclear attacks were survivable.

Civil Defense Efforts: The Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) instructed families to build backyard or basement bomb shelters stocked with rations like Spam and canned goods.

Public Readiness: Schools issued dog tags to children, and cities established shelters for fallout protection.

Evacuation Strategies: By 1953, strategies shifted toward mass evacuation, encouraging urban residents to flee cities by automobile upon warning

How the LGBTQ community was impacted by the Red Scare

The LGBTQ community was severely impacted by the Red Scare through a parallel campaign known as the Lavender Scare, a mid-20th-century moral panic that deemed gay and lesbian federal employees security risks. Spanning from roughly 1947 to 1975, this era saw thousands of individuals interrogated, forced to resign, or fired from government jobs due to their sexual orientation

How the Hollywood community was impacted by the Red Scare

creating a pervasive atmosphere of fear, paranoia, and self-censorship that resulted in the blacklisting of hundreds of industry professionals

The impact of Joseph McCarthy

Senator Joseph McCarthy's campaign in the early 1950s—which came to be known as McCarthyism—fueled a widespread Red Scare by capitalizing on Cold War fears of Communist subversion. His unsubstantiated allegations damaged civil liberties, ruined lives through blacklisting, and led to the formal censure of the senator by the U.S. Senate

The efforts of spies in America in the 1950s

Espionage in the United States during the 1950s was defined by intense Soviet efforts to steal atomic and technological secrets, prompting a massive American counterintelligence response during the height of the Cold War and the Red Scare. Soviet intelligence (KGB) targeted the U.S. government, military, and private industries using "illegal" undercover agents and recruited sympathizers to gain advantages in nuclear weaponry, radar, and aviation