psyc 302 midterm 1

the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, is called

continuous development

researchers compared children aged 3, 4 and 5 year olds within the same week to understand the development of dishonesty. this example describes which research design?

cross-sectional designs

during mitosis, which occurs within about 12 hours after conception

the zygote divides into two equal parts, then four, eight, and so on

a study that examines experience-dependent plasticity using rats would likely find that rats:

whose environments included toys and puzzles developed more dendritic spines and had more synapses per neuron

according to Piaget, the main sources of continuity are three processes — assimilation, accommodation, and

equilibration

egocentrism is observable in which of these examples?

a child that sometimes continues to talk even when others are also trying to talk to them

__ theories emphasize the development of actions in complex systems over varying time periods

dynamic-systems

explain why Mei and Su, who are identical (MZ) twins, would display a great similarity in IQ scores compared to Ravi and Vikram, who are fraternal (DZ) twins

Mei and Su are identical (MZ) twins who share 100% of their genes, while Ravi and Vikram are fraternal (DZ) twins who share about 50%. Because IQ is strongly influenced by genetics, MZ twins tend to have more similar IQ scores than DZ twins, even when raised in the same environment.

amygdala

an area of the brain that is involved in emotional reactions

clinical interview

a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides

cognitive development

the development of thinking and reasoning

continuous development

the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, like that of a pine tree growing taller and taller

control group

the group of participants in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest but in other ways are treated identically

correlation

the association between two variables

correlational designs

studies intended to indicate how two variables are related to each other

cross-sectional design

a research method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behaviour or characteristic over a short period

cumulative risk

the accumulation of disadvantages over years of development

dependent variable

a behaviour that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable

direction-of-causation problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variable is the cause of the other

discontinous changes

the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts, like the transition from caterpillar to cocoon to butterfly

hypotheses

testable predictions of the presence or absence of phenomena or relations

epigenetics

the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment

experimental control

the ability of researchers to determine the specific experiences of participants during the course of an experiment

experimental designs

a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn

experimental group

the group of participants in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest

external validity

the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research

genome

each person’s complete set of hereditary information; the complete set of DNA of any organism, including all of its genes

independent variable

the experience that participants in the experimental group receive and that those in the control group do not receive

internal validity

the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor that the researcher is testing

interrater reliability

the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behaviour

longitudinal design

a method of study in which the same participants are studied twice or more over a substantial length of time

meta-analysis

a method for combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them; statistical method used to summarize average effect size and statistical significance across several research studies

methylation

a biochemical process that influences behaviour by suppressing gene activity and expression

microgenetic design

a method of study in which the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period

naturalistic observation

examination of ongoing behaviour in an environment not controlled by the researcher

nature

our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our parents

neurotransmitters

chemicals involved in communication amongst brain cells

nurture

the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development

prefrontal cortex

cortical region associated with planning, reasoning, problem solving, and other high-level mental functions

questionnaire

a method that allows researchers to gather information from a large number of participants simultaneously by presenting them a uniform set of printed questions

random assignment

a procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment

reliability

the degree to which independent measurements of a given behaviour are consistent

replicability

the degree to which subsequent studies using the same procedure yield the same results as the original study

scientific method

an approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion

sociocultural context

the physical, social, cultural, political, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child’s environment

socioeconomic status (SES)

a measure of social class based on income and education

stage theories

approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age-related phases

structured interview

a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions

structured observation

a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each participant and recording the participant’s behaviour

test-retest reliability

the degree of similarity of a participant’s performance on two or more occasions

third variable problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

validity

the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

variables

attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, sex, and popularity

the “turtle shell” technique is an example of a successful intervention that helps preschoolers cope with what?

Their own anger

what is meta-analysis?

a method for combining and analyzing the results from several independent studies

studies have shown that children’s testimony is usually accurate when which condition is met?

the interviewer does not ask leading questions

according to developmentalists, which is true?

development is influenced by the joint workings of nature and nurture

the concept of the “active child” refers to

how children contribute to their own development

in recent decades, researchers have come to the conclusion that, after infancy, most developmental changes occur

gradually

in the context of mechanisms of developmental change, the study of the development of “effortful attention” provides insights into

the role of brain activity, genes, and learning experiences

the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up a child’s environment are known as the

sociocultural context

the first basic step in using the scientific method involves

choosing a question

in order to generalize her findings beyond the individuals who participated in her study, Dr. Liu needs to conduct additional research using participants from a variety of backgrounds. what quality of behavioural research is Dr. Liu addressing?

external validity

the experience that children in an experimental group receive — and which children in a control group do not receive — is referred to as the

independent variable

a team of researchers is studying whether stable individual differences exist in sleeping behaviour at various ages. they decide to test 3-month-olds, 6-month-olds, and 9-month-olds. what type of design are they using to examine this question?

cross-sectional

which type of design is used to study developmental change as it is occurring by observing participants numerous times over a relatively short span of time?

microgenetic

by administering the same test to the same group of participants under similar conditions two or more times, a researcher can measure __ reliability

test-retest

according to the Tri-Council guidelines, which is NOT a stated ethical practice for conducting research with children?

information about the child uncovered through the course of the study must not be revealed to the parent or guardian, regardless of its importance for that child’s welfare

amniotic sac

a transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus

Apgar score

method for evaluating the health of the newborn immediately following birth based on skin tone, pulse rate, facial response, arm and leg activity, and breathing

apoptosis

genetically programmed cell death

cephalocaudal development

the pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head

colic

excessive, inconsolable crying by a young infant for no apparent reason

conception

the union of an egg and a sperm

developmental resilience

successful development in spite of multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards

dishabituation

the introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus

dose-response relation

a relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure (prenatally, the more exposure a fetus has to a potential teratogen, the more severe its effect is likely to be)

ectopic pregnancy

pregnancy in which the fertilized egg implants and grows in an organ outside of the uterus (most often in a fallopian tube), preventing normal growth of the fetus and putting the expectant parent at risk of life-threatening injury

embryo

the developing organism from the 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development

embryonic stem cells

embryonic cells, which can develop into any type of body cell

epigenesis

the emergence of new structures and functions in the course of development

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

the harmful effects of alcohol consumption on a developing fetus, including characteristic facial features, intellectual developmental disorder, attentional challenges, and hyperactivity

fetus

the developing organism from the 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

twins that result when two eggs happen to be released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two different sperm; fraternal twins have only half their genes in common

gametes (germ cells)

reproductive cells—egg and sperm—that contain only half the genetic material of all the other cells in the body

habituation

a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation

identical (monozygotic) twins

twins that result from the splitting in half of the zygote, resulting in each of the two resulting zygotes having exactly the same set of genes

infant mortality

death during the first year after birth

low birth weight (LBW)

a birth weight of less than 5 and 1/2 pounds (2500 grams)

meiosis

cell division that produces gametes

mitosis

cell division that results in two identical cells

neural tube

a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord

non-REM sleep

a quiet or deep sleep state characterized by the absence of motor activity or eye movements and more regular, slow brain waves, breathing, and heart rate

phylogenetic continuity

humans share many characteristics, behaviours, and developmental processes with nonhuman animals, especially mammals, due to our common evolutionary history

placenta

a support organ for the fetus; it keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and pregnant parent separate, but a semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials between them (oxygen and nutrients from pregnant parent to fetus, and carbon dioxide and waste products from fetus to pregnant parent)

premature

any child born at 37 weeks after conception or earlier (as opposed to the normal term of 38 weeks)

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

an active sleep state characterized by quick, jerky eye movements under closed lids and associated with dreaming in adults

sensitive period

the period during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors

small for gestational age

babies who weigh substantially less than is normal for whatever their gestational age

state

level of arousal and engagement in the environment, ranging from deep sleep to intense activity