History - Germany year 2 content

What was the general public mood towards the war in Germany between 1939-41?

• At first the public mood was unstable between 1939-41, propaganda not always fully effective (many Germans were frightened by past memories of WW1), however quick victories and a few losses did lift the spirits, created high expectations

• The Germans saw Hitler as personally responsible for Germany’s success, between 1940-41 he made 9 speeches on radios celebrating the successes of the war

• However, many Germans were worried about the stalemate with nations like Britain that were seen as prolonging the war

• Also there was a low rate of living standards which lowered morale

What was the impact of rationing between 1939-41?

• In August 1939, decrees establishing food rationing were established, the allocation of food was based on individuals race, employment, and age. (e.g manual labour workers were given more than office workers) these days remained unchanged for the first two years of the war

• The nazis were reluctant to reduce food supplies but overall their rules of rationing were harsher than in places like Britain

• However some measures did help like the Nazi-soviet pact providing more grain from places like Ukraine, thus this meant there were no serious shortages between 1939-41

• Shortages of coal, shoes, and soap which caused public discontent

• The Nazis also never effectively exploited their new territories that they had invaded

What are key dates and time periods concerning Germany’s position during WW2?

• Spring 1942, the final solution of death camps was designed + strategic bombing campaigns in allied cities

• 23rd of October - 4th of November 1942, Axis first major defeat at battle of El Alamein in Egypt

• Stalingrad invasion failed, only 5000 Germans survived captivity with losses of over 750k men on Jan 31st 1943

• July-August 1943 allied forces take Sicily

• Sept 8th 1943, allies land on Normandy

How did public mood continually decline from 1942 in Germany?

• Initially the war on the eastern front with the USSR was seen as a ideological crusade, this led to reports from the SD that people feared the war would last for years, in 1942 as the USSR was closing In on German troops in Stalingrad letters were written urging for help which undermined positive propaganda

• Scapegoats were used like the Jews undermining the third reich based on their Jewish conspiracy to ‘destroy the aryan race’

• Defeat at Stalingrad came as a shock to germans, in February 1943 Goebbels declared total war in a major speech

• The hitler myth began losing credibility however many germans still held faith and patriotism

How did German bombing methods develop and improve?

• Luftwaffe development in the 1930s meant that blitzkrieg tactics were supported, planes were lighter and quicker

• They were capable of major destruction shown by the bombing of Gurnica in 1937

• Caused 40k British civilian deaths in cities like London and Plymouth, however not enough planes to disrupt the economy enough, British morale increased in resistance

How did Bombing impact German morale throughout the war?

• The RAF had changed its technique to area bombing as previously only 30% of their bombs reached a 5 mile radius of the intended target, area bombing meant many Germans were dehoused and industrial areas damaged. On the 28th of March an area bombing campaign in Lubeck destroyed 62% of the city

• May 1942, the RAF launched it’s first 1000 bomber raid on the city of Cologne

• By Mid 1943 campaigns intensified with 43 German cities being heavily bombed like Essen

• Bombing campaigns continued and decimated German cities towards the end of the war, Dresden feb 1945, used alongside ground campaigns

The bombing meant morale was worsened, there was a growing sense of exhaustion, 400k German citizens were killed

How did the end of the war impact morale?

Germans living in Poland and Eastern Europe had been driven out, around 3.5 million fled with around 500k-1 million dying during the harsh conditions, survivors came back to German cities that were destroyed from the bombing, no help was given from the German army as their focus was the concentration camp system and fighting the allies

By the end, there was little resistance to allied occupation, though it was rare that individuals spoke out against the regime as the SS still executed those with defeatist remarks

How did Germany shift it’s economic approach at the beginning of WW2?

On the 3rd of September 1939, the decree for the conversion of the whole German economy onto a war footing was issued by Hitler

• This doubled military spending between 1939-41

• Rationing introduced, consumption declined by 20%

• Proportion of the workforce in armaments rose from 21% in sept 1939 to 55% by Jan 1941

However increased mobilisation did not bring effiiency, Hitler had commanded a focus on high quality specialised weapons which required more skilled workers, more costly materials, more time, etc

How did Germany experience issues with shortages of equipment at the start of the war?

• The Luftwaffe went from 8290 planes to 10,780 between 1939-41

• However, the RAF grew from 3700 planes in 1939 to 20,100 in 1941

• Operation Barbarossa launched In June 1941 with 3500 tanks, only 800 more than when Germany invaded France in May 1940

What disrupted the four year plan’s targets?

Hitler didn’t expect western allies to go to war due to appeasement and the lack of response with the invasion of Czechoslovakia. Initially the four year plan was designed to create Autarky with production of ersatz oil, steel, rubber, etc.

• The war with the west disrupted further plans of building a strong Luftwaffe by 1942, the war drained their resources

Additionally, the system had weakened in terms of aims and unity within economic aims and policy

• No strong overall control of the economy, Goering’s lack of interest or expertise meant that there was no effective commands over the war economy

• Goering was also in constant competition with the heads of armed forces and SS over weapon types and priorities of production

• Infighting and confusion between govt agencies under fritz todt, Gauleiters also tried to corrupt local economies

This meant Hitler issued a ‘rationalisation decree’ to Todt in 1941 to eliminate wastes

How did economic power shift from Todt to Speer?

• Initially, Fritz Todt was made armaments minister, he was originally responsible for the autobahn building programme in 1933 and had his own constriction unit ‘organisation todt’

• By 1941 he expressed doubts about the war and the possibility of victory in the east

• On the 7th of February 1942 he was invited to the ‘wolfs lair’ for a private meeting with Hitler, according to sources, some say he was in a huge argument with Hitler

Todt left by plane which crashed killing him, Todt was replaced by Speer,

What did Speer do to improve economic development during the war?

• Reduced constraints on private businesses

• Central planning board established under spears direction using industrialists, removing influence of military personnel

• fewer factories, concentrated on standardised mass produced products

• protection of skilled workers from being drafted

• Increased shift working for 24 hour production

• More women and children, more forced labourers from territories west and east

What were the economic limitations and successes of speers economic changes?

• Overall total arms production was up 59%, ammunition up 97% and aircraft production up 200%, tanks 250%

• War production trebled 1942-44, highly successful even during bombing campaigns and Barbarossa, peak production was hit in 194

• However, efficiency was still limited by Gauleiters and SS in conquered territory, restrained his economic potential

How was the Labour front mobilised from 1943?

• All men 16-65 and women aged 17-45 were made to register for work, there was a forced closure of all non-essential businesses and transfer to war work or military service

• The ideological focus meant women in work didn’t increase by a huge amount, around 250k more workers

• Foreign labour was used, Fritz Sauckel forcibly transported 2.8 million more workers from Eastern Europe to Germany, by 1944 c7 million foreign workers in Germany, plus another 7 million in occupied areas, 1.2 million in 1940 to 7.5 million in 1944

How were foreign workers treated?

• Volunteer/’guest’ workers from Western Europe like 1.1 million from France, given the same wages/living conditions/ rations as Germans but treated more strictly

• Forced labourers in the east were given half wages and rations, housed in lodges or barracks and treated badly

• PoW and concentration camp inmates were treated inhumanely on starvation rations

Many companies like Krupp used forced labour to mines and farms

Foreign labour didnt solve supply issue as poor conditions led to unproductivity

What was the economic impact of allied bombing?

Between March 1942 and May 1945, there was constant strategic bombing by the RAF and USAAF (United States Army air force) against Germany’s industrial capacity and civilian morale.

• Despite major damage to factories and transport, gains in production were still made between 1943 and 44,

• There was an impact on production due to damage to supply line, factories, and overall morale of workers, there is however much debate between historians over the extent to which there was an impact as it was hard to measure what had been produced or not

• The Nazi ministry of armaments calculated in January 1945 that the campaign resulted in 35% fewer tanks, 31% fewer aircraft, and 42% fewer tanks

What was the impact of WW2 on general living standards?

• In the early days of the war, they began rationing soap, clothes, and food. However, they kept a decent diet which was about 10% above the needed calorie intake, the diet was basic with key staples like potatoes, bread, etc

• In the last 12 months of WW2, there began to be real shortages e.g in clothes and leather, people wore wooden clogs

• Consumer goods also fell in demand, furniture and clothing around 40% and 25% decrease in sales

• Coal had been reserved for industrial production so less was available for domestic heating

What was the impact upon the elite during WW2?

• Initially the elites supported the Nazis and changed its general appearance of the street fighting SA to a more systematic authoritarian party to be taken seriously

• Many men from the social elite were drafted into wermacht, however during the start many avoided the war and were able to enjoy their privileged lives

• However, throughout the war the relationship strained between the elite and the Nazis, Prince Phillip Von Hessen (relative to kaiser wilhelm) and his wife Princess Madalda were arrested and taken to Buchenwald concentration camp. The landowning nobility in eastern Prussia were made to flee the red army, many were tortured for being ‘capitalist’, they joined the mass movement heading west

What was the impact of WW2 on workers?

• Workers deemed as essential were not made to fight in the war, non-essential workers were drafted

• Bonuses and overtime payments had increased to workers in order to boost morale, this was cancelled out due to the higher income tax and taxes on products like Tobbaco

• Working hours were increased from 52 in 1940 to 60 in 1944, all holidays and bonuses were stopped in 1944

• The mittlestand resented the Nazis due to the closure of all non-essential businesses in 1943

What was the impact of WW2 on women?

• At the start of WW2, women were not fully mobilised compared to countries like the UK, also women were decentivised from working by beneifts being paid to women whose husbands were at war, this backed up Hitlers ideological aims to boost morale by maintaing tradition placed in the third reich

• The introduction of Speer to the wartime economy meant that there was full mobilisation of women workers, from 1943 women aged 17-45 were made to sign up for work, this then increased to women over 50 in 1944-45, by 1945 60% of the workforce was made up of women

• More pressure was placed upon women in the war, many struggled to balance working, household issues, and looking after children. Women found managing farms difficult due to a shortage of manual labour

What was the impact of WW2 on youth?

• Many of the youth became disilllusioned with the Nazis with the increase in bombings, evacuations, and family losses

• There was a decline in education and academic standards, formal exams were paused in 1943 and teaching slowly dissappeared due to conscription

• Membership of the Hitler youth became compulsory in 1939, conscription age was lowered to 17 in 1943 and then lowered again to 16 in 1945 , there was an increase in defence work like manning anti aircraft batteries

• The youth had become polarised with the formation of groups like the edelweis pirates

Where did the idea of the ‘final solution’ come from?

By 1939, the regime had reached a point where Jews were now needed to be excluded from society completely, which other than in physical terms, had been done

• WW2 brought many other Jews under their control, which meant more extreme measures had to be taken place

• In summer 1941, elements of the Nazi leadership took the decision to look at the ‘final solution’, It was a planned, systematic, state sanctioned, mass murder of the jews

Who was involved in the Wannsee conference? What was the aim?

The conference involved 15 high ranking officials, they were leaders of key departments e.g leaders of the einsatzgrupen, it was organised by Eichmann and chaired by Heydrich. originally the conference was planned for December but it got moved to January 20th 1942 due to the soviet counteroffensive near Moscow. This was not where the decision to exterminate the Jews was made, that was made summer 1941

The aim was to ensure senior officials understood their role in implementing the ‘final solution’

What were the details of the final solution? How were death camps set up?

• Heydrich and Eichmann’s solution was to use previous methods of killing such as T4 gas in sealed chambers for mass killing, this was much more efficient than mass shootings used by Einsatzgrupen

• The New camps were designed with direct rail links making deportation quicker, death camps had been equipped with similar facilities to concentration camps with labour facilities

• In early 1942, Jews arrived at death camps and would often stay for temporary periods of time, then they would be taken to gas chambers, intially bodies were buried but eventually crematoria were installed were bodies were burnt

• Gas chambers were decorated as showers to remove panic - speeding up process

What were the 5 main death camps?

• Chermo, from December 1941-Jan 1945, first used gas vans then chambers 167k deaths

• Belzee, Feb 1942-June 1943 , 435k deaths

• Sobibor

• Treblinka, 925k deaths near warsaw

• Auschwitz, 1.1 million deaths, complex of 3 camps, Auschwitz Birkenau killing centre operated between march 1942- November 1944

Also Majdanek concentration camp, also became a major killing sight with around 100k deaths

What examples are there of other camps?

• Many concentration camps were established much earlier like Sachsenhausen in 1936 and Dachau in 1933, during WW2 the proportion increased with more concentration camps for enemies of the state, prisoner of war camps, forced labour camps

In all types the brutal conditions became deadly and some changed function to become part of the final solution

How did the forced movement of Jews work? Who became responsible?

Heydrich was assassinated by Czech partisans in June 1942, therefore Eichmann had to continue the implementation of his plans, beginning of the ghettos within the general gov area, jews were forcibly deported to concentration camps, the clearance of ghettos was known as operation Reinhard

• The SS systematically ‘liquidated’ each ghetto, more than half the jews who died in the holocaust were murdered between February 1942 and February 1943

• Deportation of Jews from Western Europe began in Spring 1942

• In June 1942, the SS formed work units in the camps (sonderkommando) to exhume and burn bodies from the mass graves

How did messaging about the camps adapt? How did the Nazis change their approach upon defeat?

• Despite the war and Speers aim, the infrustructure for deportation was still the regimes top priority

• Propaganda intensified in 1943, Goebbels empathised that the war should and would result in the destruction of the Jews, he never openly admitted what they were doing however in the public rumours spread

• By summer 1944 the Nazis clearly faced defeat, the genocide continued and accelerated

• By November, Himmler changed approach and ordered the destruction of crematoria and concealment of mass murder, camps were liquidated leading to the death marches, this is where around 100-400k were killed whilst attempting to move west after camp closures, many died due to malnourishment and freezing condions

How were the camps liberated?

The Nazi attempts to hide evidence had not been thorough, Majdenack was the first to be liberated and was left mostly intact, journalists were invited to spread the word of genocide

• Auschwitz were liberated on the 27th of January 1945, Bergen Belsen on the 15th of April

• Liberators found horroundous conditions with only some survivors, many were starving and died after liberation

• Many Displaced persons spread all over Europe with psychological trauma

How were youth opposition movements surpressed during war?

• The edelweiss pirates tried to avoid conscription throughout the war, there were clashes between them and the HJ, the gestapo and the HJ were used to arrest and intimidate opposition, increased practices of head shaving and violence.

• Some members of youth opposition groups were taken to forced labour camps, and 28 groups within cities like Dusseldorff and Essen were dispanded (1942)

• In 1944, A cologne based group became linked to an underground movement, Ehrenfelder Gruppe which helped army deserters, PoW, concentration camp inmates, etc. In November that same year, 12 leaders were arrested and publically hanged for resistence activity

Overwhelmingly however, the majority of Germans remained loyal to the regime and formed the core of the war effort

What was the white rose movement?

A resistence group wanting to advocate active but peaceful resistence to the regime, they attacked regime policy with a series of leaflets and graffiti. The core was made from five students of Munich University, small groups emerged in Ulm and Hamburg who shared the same aims

Key members included;

• Willi Graf, Christoph Probst, Alexander Schmorell, Hans and Sophie Scholl, and Professor Kurt Huber. They all shared values in liberal beliefs

• The four males were medical students and served in the medical corps on the Eastern front between 1940 and 42

In the summer of 1942, the founding members wrote philosphical based leaflets rejecting Nazi ideology, Sophie Scholl joined the group in te Autumn of 1942, they produced a 5th leaflet direclty advocating for resistence

How was the white rose movement repressed?

• On the 18th of Feburary 1943 the Scholl siblings and Christoph Probst were arrested in possesion of leaflets, on the 22nd they faced trial in the peoples court and were then executed the same day for treason

• Further in April 1943, more arrests were made in th group

Although there was rapid repression, the groups messaging remained in underground groups and their 5th and 6th leaflets were smuggled out of Germany to the allies who mass produced the leafelts and dropped them over germany

How did the confessional church continue to oppose the Nazi regime during war?

It was heavily repressed in the mid 1930s and leaders were either imprisoned or banned from public speaking

• Bonhoeffer had called for christian resistence to nazi policy including treatment of the jews, he became part of the group of elites in the Kreisau cirlce

• He was arrested and imprisoned in April 1943, Bonhoeffer was executed in April 1945

• Other members of the confessioner church like Niemoller were taken to concentration camps but survived

To what extent did the Catholic church oppose the regime during war?

The catholic church mainly focussed on protecting their organisation, the supported many of the regimes social policies and agreed with the destruction of communism, however some individuals spoke out against Nazi policy

• Bishop Clemens Von Galen of Munster welcomed USSR invasion but as he became aware of the T4 programme in 1941 he denounced the euthanisia programs as ungodly

• Galen was placed under surviellance but no prosecuted, three priests who shard his sermons were arressted and executed

• Josef Frings was appointed Archbishop of cologne in 1942, he reguarly preached sermons in support of persecuted peoples repressed by the nazi state

To what extent did the pope oppose the Nazi regime during war?

• Previously pope Pius XI had signed the concordat with Mussolini and Hitler

• His replacement Pope Pius XII wanted to show indifference and remained silent on Nazi atrocities despite clear knowledge

• He privately sheltered some jews and encouraged a small number of officials to help the Jews

How did communists oppose the Nazi regome during the war?

• Underground networksand cells still survived in Urban areas, e.g Berlin, Hamberg, Mannheim, they issued leaflets and committed sabotage.The gestapo were successful in infiltrating and destroying cells 22 were destroyed in Berlin by the end of 1943

• Communism was associtated with the USSR who most Germans considered their main enemy - lack of support

How did elite oppositon form during the war?

• Kreisau circle, Krisau was the estate of count von helmuth von moltke in Silesia, He and count peter yorke von waternburg formed social circles in 1938 discussing their hopes for Germanys future. The circle was officially formed in November 1940, they focused on discussing their concerns over the future of Germany if the Nazi regime were to collapse

• Attendees of the circle were members of the aristocracy, churchmen, ex-spd politicians, etc. Amongst them there were strong belief in individual responsibility and freedom. Met together in Kreisau in May and September 1942 and in June 1943

• The circle was disbanded in January 1944, Von Moltke was imprisoned

What are some examples of assassination attempts against Hitler?

Throughout the war there were multiple accounts of assassination attempts against Hitler (more than 20 documented plots). Most were small scale of foiled by the state

• Nov 8th 1939, George Elsner put a time bomb in beer hall in Munich, Hitler left earlier than expected so wasn’t injured, however the bomb killed 8 people. Elsner was arrested and executed in 1945

• March 1943, attempted bombings on Hitlers plane, doesn’t succeed. Also another bomb was laid in an art gallery Hitler went to visit, It failed as Hitler stormed through the gallery so it went off after he left

• Operation Valkyrie was organised by high up individuals like Peter Yorke von Waternburg and Colonel Von Stauffenberg, they wanted to organise a military coup to remove other leaders and Hitler. 20th of July 1944, Von Stauffenberg had placed a bomb in the ‘wolfs lair’ Hitler escaped with minor injuries

What was the aftermath of the 1944 plot to assassinate Hilter?

• The next stage of the coup was coordinated by Von Stauffenberg, they successfully overthrew Nazi occupied France but the rest of the process did not go as smoothly, they failed to seize key points of control within Germany

• Himmler restored full control in Germany and Hitler did a broadcast on the radio to prove he was alive, Von Stauffenberg, Beck, and three others were arrested. Beck killed himself and the others were shot immediately

• Himmler coordinated hunt for conspirators, found and arrested 7000 and executed around 5000

• Peter Yorck Von Waternberg was executed in Aug 1944

• One of Germanys best commanders Erwin Rommel was given a choice of suicide or disgrace in the peoples court, he chose suicide in oct 1944

• After the plot the army lost all independence and placed under SS control

What approach did the Nazi regime take in radicalisation of Germany?

They took a gradualist approach, this made it harder for people to recognise and oppose policies whilst they were happening. Initially the nazis consolidated their political and legal control. Between 1934-37 a full legal basis for discrimination. 1938-41 led to rapid radicalisation of policy unwanted people were excluded from society

Who was excluded based upon Volkgemeinschaft?

• Ideological opponents e.g socialists, religious groups, freemason

• Asocials, Arbeitsscheu, e.g the homeless, homosexuals, criminals

• Biologically inferior, untermenschen, Jews, Roma and sinti, people with disabilities

How did freemasons provide opposition as ideological opponents?

Freemasons made up organisations dedicated to the core principles of “brotherly love” they were often charitable and secret, not consistent to Nazi ideals, they claimed that freemasons were part of the Jewish conspiracy against the interests of German nationalism.

• Pressure was placed upon lodges to dissolve until august 1935, when all masonic activity was outlawed, lodges and temples were destroyed

• Propaganda attacked Freemasons, 1000s of them were taken to concentration camps and murdered

What religious groups conformed to the Nazi regime?

• Seventh Day adventists saw the nazi regime as the rebirth of Germany, the ban on them was lifted after 2 weeks when they agreed to hang swastikas and end services with heil hitler. Also they agreed to exclude the Jews and asocials from welfare support

• Mormons also compromised for their survival and welfare was given to only Nazi approved groups in society

How did the Jehovah’s witnesses provide opposition to the Nazi regime?

They were the only religious group that were actively hostile towards the Nazi regime, around 30,000 members that refused to take oath of loyalty to Hitler, salute, take part in conscription. They saw persecution by the Nazis a test of faith and by 1945 10,000 were imprisoned

How did the Nazi’s treat ‘asocials’ snd prevent homelessness?

They classed asocials as a wide range of people who were social outcasts, e.g criminals, beggars, alcoholics, prostitutes, homosexuals, juvinelle delinquents

Beggars and the homeless were identified with black triangle badges, in sept 1933 beggars week meant around 100,000 were taken to concentration camps, in 1936 the olympics meant the streets were cleared off the streets

Between April and June 1938 a national campaign was held against the workshy, most were arrested and deported to concentration camps

How were homosexuals painted by the Nazis? What actions were taken by the Nazis?

Previously it had been tolerated in Weimar Germany, the Nazis considered this proof of degenerate values of democracy, nazis believed that homosexuality was a disease dangerous the Volk, homosexuals were weak and unable to fight, the lack of children from gay couples was a threat to Germany

• In early 1933, gay bars were closed in cities, that march the institute of sex research was burned down

• In June 1935 new legislation hardened punishments for same sex relations with up to 10 years of hard labour

• In 1936, Himmler established the Reich central office for combating homosexuality and abortions

• 100,000s of arrests, 15,000 in concentration camps, 60% died

• Forced to wear pink triangles to cure them

How did Eugenics play a role in influencing Nazi Germany policy?

The Nazi’s had an ideological aim to make sure Germans were ‘Aryan’, they created a hierarchy of races, with minorities such as Jews, Roma and Sinti, Slavs, and people from BAME groups.

Eugenics had been a global movement gaining interest from the US, Mexico, The UK, Italy, and Germany, Eugenicists have an inaccurate understanding of mendelian genetics claiming that disorders and traits were solely formed through genetics. In the US use of genetics was most popular before Nazi Germany, 64,000 were sterilised in California between 1907-1963

What was the ‘law for the prevention of hereditary diseased progeny’?

This law was brought into place in July 1933, it was modelled on Californias method of forced sterilisation. Hitler regarded people with mental or physical diseases as ‘useless mouths’ and the party adopted the phrase Lebensunwertes Leben “life unworthy of life”. Conditions such as Schizophrenia, epilepsy and psychosocial conditions like alchoholism were a risk to the Volk

• The law required that doctors had to report their patients with these conditions and petition for their sterilisation, the petitions would be reviewed by 2 doctors and a judge without the patient present in a hereditary health court, decisions were made in a matter of minutes

• Vasectomy was used for men and tubal litigation was used for women, this was invasive and led to deaths

• The law was amended in 1935 to allow some women to have abortions if there was a risk of hereditary disease being passed down

• 400,000 Germans were sterilised between 1933 and 1945

What was the T4 programme? How did it begin and how was it scaled back to prevent opposition?

• A father wrote directly to Hitler to get their disabled child put to sleep, Dr Phillip Bouhler ensured this was given to Hitler. Hitler ordered SS Dr Karl Brandt to examine this child, Brandt recommended euthanasia. From this point, Hitler advised that party officials collated data on children with hereditary conditions.

• From October 1939, parents were encouraged to admit children to one of the several pediatric clinics which actually were just euthanasia centres, staff murdered children through injections or starvation, the programme was backdated to sept 1st to make it look related to the war.

• At first the programme was directed towards infants and toddlers but it extended to teens and adults, 10,000 were initially murdered

• The public became aware and protests appeared, Blaune a protestant pastor protested and was arrested, the catholic church and individuals like Archbishop Galen of Munster spoke out against the programme, it halted in 1941 whereby at this point 70,000 had been killed

However this was only a tactical pause made, the programme re-started and by 1945 250,000 were murdered

How were the Roma and Sinti persecuted under the Nazi regime?

They were also considered ‘race enemies’ by the Nazis and viewed as outsiders, the regime disapproved of the culture and lack of regular employment = not volksgemeinschaft. Therefore there was a gradual increase in discrimination

• Nuremberg laws in 1935 said that alongside jews, the roma and sinti were “alien blood”

• 1936, the SS set up the reich central office for for the fight against gypsy nuisance- locating Roma and sinti and enabling police action

• before the 1936 olympics, Roma and Sinti were removed out of the cities to camps on the outskirts.

• 1938 Himmler directive “the struggle against the gypsy plague” ordered full registration of race and men were sent to concentration camps and wore black patches, increased deportation to camps In WW2 leading to genocide of the people

• Around 250,000 died, called the Porrajmos

How did Nazi ideas about anti-semitism originate?

Nazis were influenced by original theories about a worldwide Jewish conspiracy, e.g Houston Steward Chamberlain became an extreme German nationalist and theorised that Jews were responsible for the creation of communism, controlled the Catholic Church and created capitalism

Hitler and Rosenberg combined these ideas with Der dolchstoss, they argued Judeo-bolshvism was a threat to Germany

What was the intention behind the day of boycott on Jewish businesses? What did the Nazi regime learn?

On the 1st of April 1933 only a week after the enabling act, the Nazis launched a boycott of all jewish businesses which was enforced by members of the SA, this also applied to jewish teachers, lawyers, and doctors. Hitler had made promises to voters and the SA that he would end the Jewish conspiracy, the boycott was an attempt to “throw red meat”. There was limited impact as shoppers were irritated and confused, this proved that discrimination needed to be gradual and build up legal measures to keep jews out

What was the Law for the restoration of the professional civil service? How did it exclude Jews from society?

It was introduced on the 7th of April 1933, and prevented non-aryans and political opponents from working for the state, jews could no longer work as civil servants, teachers, lecturers, lawyers, etc. Hindenburg however made it so Jewish veterans who were employed from the 1st of august 1914 to be exempt as well as those who lost a father or son in the war - dropped after his death in 1934.

This sparked a wave of middle class emigration of around 37,000 in the first year of the regime

How was propaganda used against the Jews under the Nazi regime? Schools and reading

In schools eugenics became a big part of the curriculum and children’s literature became anti-semetic, e.g Der Giftpilz, designed to teach children that Jews were a threat to volksgemeinschaft, They were compared to poisonous mushrooms that hid alongside other Germans

What were the Nuremberg Laws? What were the confusions over classification?

They were announced during the annual rally in 1935, they were designed to appeal to the anti-semites who were unhappy that Jewish persecution was slower than anticipated, two laws were put in place

• The law for the protection of German blood and German honour, this was designed to isolate Jews from integration in Germany, prohibiting marriage and social relations between jews and non jews

• The reich citizenship law, defined who wasn’t and was able to claim citizenship based on their racial profile, jews lost civil rights

However confusion began based upon the classification of jews

• 1 Jewish Grandparent was not considered Jewish

• 3 were considered jewish

• 2, were only jewish if they married a jew or followed judaism

What were the impacts of the Nuremberg laws?

• The interpretation of the laws were made confusing and made it hard to enforce laws, it got to the point that even an allegation of having a prohibited relationship became punishable

• There was a removal of legal protections and an acceleration of loss of employment, many aryan wives left Jewish husbands

• proof over ariernachweis (aryan certificate) was important for those questioned over their ancestry, non practicing jews tried to attain documents on the black market to prove aryan ancestry, sometimes helped by sympathetic clergy members

• ‘Mischlinge’ were able to lead normal lives, some served in the lower ranks of the military

• Segregation was common in almost all areas of public life, schools, hotels, swimming pools

What are other examples of antisemitic legislaton in 1933?

• Law on admission to the legal profession, prev jews made 16% of the legal profession, regulations were put into place against non-aryan lawyers but this wasn’t completely limiting as around 60% remained untill stricted legislation was put into place gradually

• 22nd April, Decree regarding Physicians services with the national health service, just over 10% of doctors were Jewish, some local authorities took it upon themselves to remove jews and anti-semitic propaganda was released depiticting jewish doctors taking ‘malicious action’ against aryan patients, the law ended up banning Jewish doctors and most only treated Jewish patients from that point, however, many did continue normal practice

• 25th April, Law against overcrowding in schools and universities, this restricted the number of Jewish children being allowed within education as the Nazis didnt want to ‘waste’ money and time on ‘enimies’. Children were told that their Jewish classmates were unworthy to be at school, many university proffesors came under pressure from officials and lost their jobs

• 4th of October, Reich Press Law, Enabled strict censorship against the press and many publications were closed using regulatations and fear. Previously, Jews played a big role in the Weimar republic and the press, this meant many jews left Germany

How many Jews left Germany by 1939? Why could some not and why did some choose to stay?

Around 282,000 left Germany, some Jews were uable to migrate due to tighter regulations put in place by the USA, Europe, and the UK + commonwealth nations like Palestine. Some Jews Choose not to migrate due to the fiancial cost and the fact Jews had been persecuted before

What were the causes of the acceleration of radicalisation in Germany between 1937-38?

• The four year plan was underway, managed by Goring,

• Nuremberg Laws were cemented and was taking effect

• The propaganda and terror state had combined leading to overwhelming levels of conformity

• Allied appeasment, PM Chamberlain wanted to avoid war at all costs

• Blomberg Fritch affair removed oppenents from the elite critiquing expansion

What were the arguements behind the Lebensraum policy?

• Germany was ‘overpopulated’ and unable to feed it’s population, relied on imports for 30% of it’s food

• Expansionism focussed east where there were more raw matierlas which would support Autarky

• Fitted into racial ideology, conquest of inferior slavic people east in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and USSR

How did the Anschluss (union) begin to form?

It was always a long term plan to create a greater Germany, the Anschluss with Austria was important to Hitler due to him being raised in Austria, he encouraged nazi groups to demand the union

• Attempted coup in 1934 failed due to opposition from Italy and Mussolini

• However, In 1936, Mussolini had become internationally isolated after fails to develop an empire, the Rome-Berlin axis was signed which removed opposition to anschluss

• In February 1938, Hitler wrote to Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg threatening invasion unless he conceded power

How did Anschluss happen?

• On the 9th of March 1938, the Austrian govt announced a plebicite to be held a week later to prove publlic opposition to Anschluss

• Britain, France and Italy made it clear they were unable to support austria if invaded

• 11th, chancellor resigns and the Austrian Nazis took control of parliment

• 12th, German forces enter Austria

• 13th Hitler signs law annexing Austria as a province of Germany

• 10th of April, plebicite is held using intimidation, 99.7% said yes to Anschluss

What was the impact of Anschluss on Austrian Jews?

The SS was already operating in Austria before 1938, Many jews, communists, and social democrats had been arrested

• 10% had their civil rights removed and couldn't vote in the referendum

• Many Jews were harassed in Vienna

• Nuremberg laws were applied from May 1938

• 500 Jews committed suicide between April-May 1938

What were Hitler’s intentions in Czechoslovakia?

an area known as Sudetenland had a large German speaking population, Hitler made demands of the Czech president Benes over the false claims that residents living In the region had been discriminated against

In September leaders like Chamberlain, French PM Daladier, and Mussolini were invited but no Czech, on the 30th of September the Munich agreement allowed Hitler to take Sudetenland as he promised not to take any more

On the 15th of March 1939 the Nazis occupied to rest of Czechoslovakia

How did Kristallnacht begin? What was the immediate impact?

• 28th of October 1938, 17,000 Polish Jews had been arrested by the SS threatened with deportation back to Poland (in Germany) Poland closed it’s borders leaving people stranded between Poland and Germany

• 7th of November, Hersonel Gyrynszpan who was a son of a detained polish jewish couple, entered the German embassy in Paris and shot the legation secretary, who died.

• As a result, The Nazis used this against the Jews and co-ordinated a state attack against Jewish owned businesses and synagogues. This was authorised by Hitler and organised by Goebbels on the 9th to 10th of November ‘night of broken glass' and 100s were killed, 3000 were arrested and sent to concentration camps

How did the violence of reichkristallnacht begin? Who got the blame?

After the death of Vom Rath, Goebbels had made an anti-semitic speech promoting violence against the jews, due to propaganda, the Jews were blamed for the violence and given a collective 1 billion RM fine for the murder of Vom Rath

What was the reaction to Kristallnacht?

• Internationally

• Domestically

The international reaction was mixed, reports of devastating events, reactions from the Archbishop of Canterbury spoke out, protests in America, President Roosevelt condemned the Nazis actions and withdrew the ambassador from Berlin. However the British and French PMs refused to publicly condemn actions, also no steps were taken to help jewish refugees

In Germany, there was not a great deal of enthusiasm for the widespread violence but there was little opposition, there was satisfaction that there was no public cost as the Jews were expected to deal with the damages, Jewish emigration increased as a result. Goebbels was told to ramp up propaganda, Goering was tasked with co-ordinating policy to deal with the Jews as they were seen as an economic issue

How was forced emigration used against the Jews by Heydrich and Eichmann

After Anschluss, Heydrich had used Austria to test the SS approach based on his deputy Adolf Eichmann, the central office for Jewish emigration was set up in Vienna where 45,000 Austrian Jews were forcibly made to emigrate by 1938, this was funded by the seizure of Jewish wealth

In January 1939 when Heydrich took control of the reich office for jewish emigration there was empathises on Jewish emigration from all Germanic lands, Goerings original claims for economic purposes were bypassed and the SS and SD took control

All Jewish organisations were amalgamated into a reich association of the Jews in Germany modelled on Eichmanns original methods in Austria

How did the outbreak of WW2 lead to radicalisation of racial policy?

The conquest of Poland added around 2 million Jews to the population, the invasion provoked war with the allies so there was no need for restraint of racial policy therefore making it extremely radicalised. The war caused circumstances of extreme nazi racial policy

• They called for a national emergency providing an excuse for total power and secrecy

• Extreme propaganda as there was a need to increase patriotism and hatred towards enemies

• wanted to create a jew free reich from lebensraum

How did Ghettos begin, what were the issues?

The Nazis faced a serious logistical problem after the invasion of Poland, they had to exclude jews from society for germans to colonise areas, they could not take a gradual approach, instead the SS run general government in Poland was designed to contain the Jews, Ghettos were created in cities such as Warsaw with large populations in small area, between November 1939 and February 1940 1 million Jews had been deported to this areas creating concerns for governor Hans Frank as he believed that the general government could not take any more Jews due to pressures (not moral but knew about keeping labour force healthy)

In Spring 1940 the ghettos were sealed and jews could only leave for forced labour, attempts to escape ghettos would be punishable by death

What was the Madagascar plan?

The favoured solution to the Jewish problem in 1940, after the invasion of France (which owned Madagascar), in collaboration with Vichy France (a group who supported the Nazis) the idea was to send all jews to Madagascar

• Work was needed so construction workers and farmers would be sent to get the Island ready for a mass influx of people, around 4 million.

• However this was unlikely to work logistically due to the fact the Royal Navy would be likely to block and disrupt transportation (Suez Canal)

An alternative plan was to send the jews to Siberia after the conquest of the USSR

How did Nazi racial policy shift going into the 1940s?

• Propaganda had shifted in tone from suggesting an ‘invasion’ and ‘risk’ to the need for ‘eradication’ and ‘plague’

• Treatment of jews moved away from emigration and detainment to encouraging death whilst being detained and state sanctioned mass murder

What are two examples of extremist propaganda aimed about the Jews?

• Suss, the Jew was a historical drama film relased in september 1940, based around a ‘jewish villan’ conspiring to bring down German duke, it was a major box office success and seen by well over 20 million people, Himmler encouraged the film to be shown to SS units in areas where they were now operating

• The eternal Jew was released in November 1940 as a documentry style film presenting Nazi lies as facts based with ‘scientific evidence’, it failed and was only seen by 1 million, regularly screened to the Hitler youth and SS

Where did Germany acquire in 1940-41?

• From may-june 1940 there was a rapid conquest of France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Additionally Norway was invaded

• In spring 1941 the axis powers gained Yugoslavia, Albania, and Greece

• In June 1941, operation Barbarossa occurred as the invasionof the USSR, this was rapidly successful at fiest taking land in East poland, the baltics, Ukraine, etc

As a result of this however, this left Germany with a large population of Jews and other ‘undesireables’

How did Ghettos expand after the war developed in 1941? What is an example of a Ghetto set up?

Ghettos had rapidly expanded in Polish cities, a council of Jewish elders were set up and were made to be responsible for the ghettos (judenrat) they usually enabled illegal black markets to form for food, schools, printing presses. The condtion in the ghettos were inhumane with an extremely high densitiy population leading to spread of diseases like typhoid and TB

Jews had been deported across poland and elsewhere from E Europe into ghettos adding pressures, around 500,000 died in Ghettos between 1939-42

• The Warsaw ghetto was the largest with a population of over 380,000, it contained 30% of the cities population but only occupied 2.4% of the cities area, on average 9.2 people livied in each room of every building and in 1941 43,000 died within the ghetto

What were Einsatzgrupen, where did the group originate, how did it develop?

Einsatzgrupen (special action groups) had been formed in Austria by Heydrich to destroy opposition in the wake of Anschluss in 1938, their tasks included ‘neutralizing’ political opposition, preventing sabotage, and esablishing intelligence networks. However in Poland and the USSR killing had expanded to any undesirable which confirmed the aims of racial annihilation

How did Einsatzgrupen run? How did the group become responsible for mass murder?

The harsh conditions of ww2 led to expansion of the special action groups, units werre led by SS personnel across the four einsatzgrupen they were aided in their operations by members of the Waffen SS, civilian police, allied forces from places like Romania, etc. For example in Kiev in sept 1941 33,000 were executed

Once in soviet territory, july 1941, Heydrich declared all jews to be ‘partisans’ leading to their justification of indiscriminate murder, this meant 1 million jews had been murdered in mass shootings between june 1941- feb 1942, this was known as a holocaust of bullets

Who were some key ministers involved in Hitlers consolidation of power?

• Franz Von Papen, vice chancellor, removed from power after the death of Hindenburg

• Konstantin Von Neurath (independent0, foreign minister, sacked due to concerns over expansion

• Wilhelm Frick, Interior minister, replaced by Himmler in ww2

• Blomberg (independent), Defence minister, also sacked for his concerns

• Hjalmar Schacht (independent) minister for economics, resigned over disagreements with policy

• Franz seldte (DNVP) minister of Labour, leader of stahelm

What are some key events after the March 1933 election?

• On election day (March 5th) the Nazi’s gained 44% of the vote with Other nationalist groups bringing a combined majority of 52%

• Dachau concentration camp opens 3 days later on the 8th with 5000 capacity

• 21st of March, Day of Potsdam, ceremonial for transition of power, key figures like Hindenburg and Prince Wilhelm in attendance, Hitler pledged to uphold tradition

• 23rd of March, Enabling act vote at Kroll opera house 444 vs 94, only SPD deputies opposed

What is Gleichschaltung? How does it link to consolidation of power?

Based upon Coordination, where all of German society was merged in order to ‘nazify’ The country. Revolution from below and above.

The first targets were other political parties, trade unions and federal states. The idea of Gleichschaltung was to try and make it easier to create Volkmeinschaft ( common national good)

How did Hitler achieve disbanding parties and trade unions through Gleichschaltung?

The one party state was formed in July 1937 after going through several stages

• KPD was banned after the Reichstag fire, in June the SPD were outlawed as they were “hostile to the nation”

• Trade unions had been banned in may

• The DNVP and Z were disolved after they could see their fate, on the 14th of July the law against the formation of new parties was introduced

How did the enabling act allow for changes in federal power?

The act on the 23rd of March 1933 meant Hitler could pass laws without the president or the reichstag for 4 years.

This meant that on the 31st of March the first law for the coordination of the federal states was introduced

• dissolved regional parliaments and replaced with a Nazi dominated assembly

On the 7th of April 33, the second law for coordination of the federal states introduced

• New post for reich governer to oversee government for each state except Prussia

• they answered to the minister of the interior and ensured states followed central government policies

How was power continuously consolidated in Hitlers government?

The law for reconstruction of the reich was created on the 30th of January 1934, state assemblies were abolished fully

The Reichstrat was abolished on the 14th of February 1934, Gauleiters replaced federal powers acting as state governors with full power

How did Hitler consolidate control over the civil service?

Many civil servants came from traditionally conservative backgrounds and higher ranks were recruited from the aristocracy

The Nazis were concerned that the civil servant would be too conservative in regard to dictatorship and the pace of Nazi policy, the party didn’t want to bound to rules.

around 5% of civil servants were forced to resign and were replaced by inexperienced Nazis

How did Hitler try and introduce a racial state through new legislation in the early years of power?

• Law against overcrowding of German schools and Universities in April 1933

• Implementation of the Law for restoration of the professional civil service in May 1933

These are some laws introduced to prevent ‘race enemies’ having a voice

How did Hitler withdraw from the LoN and Maintain popularity?

The meeting of league disarment conference in October 1933, Hitler instructed Von Neurath to withdraw from formal meetings and complain that the French showed too much aggression towards Germany. As a result, the government withdrew Germany from the LoN and also decided that the country was no longer bound to the limitations of the treaty of versailles

• A referedum was held with a 96% turnout with 95% of voters agreeing with withdrawal

• An election was also held with a 96% turnout with 92% voting in favour of the Nazis, other candidates were placed in the election e.g Alfred Hugenburg

What were the concerns around the SA in 1933/34?

The SA had a membership of 500,000 in January 1933, this grew to 4.5 million in January 1934. The SA were originally the main source of violence and terror for Hitler to use but it was clear it couldn’t carry on. The SA were merged with the Stahelm and were given the title of an “auxiilliary police force”

Hitler was concerned about the rise of the SA in it’s uncontrolled form, once Hitler had established a strong one party state, the usefullness of the SA was limited, in August 1934, the SA’s auxilliary police title was removed and they faced stricted regulations

This meant that the SA became demoralised and restless

Who was Ernst Rohm? What was his intention for the SA and how did he clash with Hitler?

Rohm was appiointed in the 1930s to establish the SA as a stronger fighting force during Hiler’s rise to power and consolidation of a one party state. Hitler’s lifestyle beliefs conflicted with Rohm, Rohm was a heavy drinker and homosexual so Hitler felt embarressed to be associated with him

What role did the Army and Blomberg play in making Hitler turn on the SA?

The Army percieved the violence of the SA as a threat, as well as this, Blomberg the defence minister threatened martial law to be declared to deal with the SA. This meant that Hitler knew that something had to be done about the SA, to maintain support

Who were the victims of the night of the long knives? How did Hitler justify his action?

• 84 had been killed, and another 1000 had been arrested, victims included individuals like Von Kahr, Schliecher, Rohm, Strasser, as well as members of Von Papens staff

• This was in order for Hitler to stamp out any opposition to his regime

• Hitler justified the violence as he was acting as a ‘supreme judge’ and said that he wanted to save the country from an SA coup, the public supported Hitler and saw his actions as decicive

How did Hitler want to consolidate power after Hindenburg’s death? How did the Night of the long knives aid this?

Hindenburg had previously ruled out Hitler merging the offices of Chancellorship and Presidency, his final wish was to restore the monarchy after his death. The army swore loyalty to Hindenburg and were concerned about the SA under Hitlers regime, this meant Hilter feared a military coup if Hindenburg died as a result of defending the country from the SA taking over

Hitler decided to commit to removing the SA through violence, this meant the conservative elite didnt object to Hitler and te Army had no real objections to Hitler succeeding Hindenburg

How did Hitler claim power once Hindeburg died?

On the 2nd of august Hindeburg died, an hour later Hitler announced the merger of both offices, he also got the army to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler as commander in chief

On the 19th of august a referendum was held about making Hitler the Fuhrer, 89.9% of voters said yes whilst 10.1% said no

What was Hitlers method of chaos?

Hitler encouraged chaos, he believed in the Darwinian approach where competition leads to strength, Hitler also was lazy and thought that these issues will resolve themselves, the most powerful will win and work towards the Fuhrerprinzip “doing hitlers will”

How was the stucture of the Nazi government set up in the 3rd Reich?

• Hitler was the Head of State, Head of the Party, and Commander in chief of the army

• The State itself was divided into; ministries, the reich chancellory, judicary, and the police

• Other institutions not based on the party or state were the Army, economic four year plan, propaganda, Ribbentrop Bureau (foreign affairs)

• The Nazi party was split into levels of control in regions, districts, streets, etc. The party also set up organisations like the Hitler youth and the SS system

How did the ‘police state’ evolve over time?

Before the Nazi’s were resbonsible for the police, it was in the hands of the ‘lander’ meaning that it was a regional institution e.g Prussian Police commanded by Goering. The Justice system was centralised and controlled by the interior ministery.

• In 1933, Wilhelm Frick oversaw civilian policing, but control was made difficult through regional powers

• By 1934, Himmler had proven that the SS could be used successfully through the night of the long knives

• Furthermore, By 1936, Himmler was granted all police powers

• In 1939, all police powers had been merged into the Reich security main office which was overseen by Heinrich Himmler but actually ran by Reinhard Heydrich

What were some key elements of the SS-Police system?

• ORPO (ordnungpolizei) - regular police

• SS

• SD (party security)

• Gestapo (Security/surveillance)

What was the SS?

The Protective Echelon

• Established in 1925 as Hitlers bodyguards 250 members

• by 1933, 52,000 men were recruited under Himmler

• Arrested and diciplined prisoners in 1934, by 1936 their role was expanded across the whole systemand concentration camps, by 1939 there were 240,000

• Used methods like systematic violence

What was the SD?

The security service

• Est in 1931 as internal security

• led by reinhard heydrich

• the main role was gathering intelligence, identifying any opposition to the regime, by 1939 there were 50,000 personnel

• Not a uniformed police force, expanded to maintain control in occupied lands. Similar but not the same as the gestapo

What was the gestapo?

Secret state police

• Originated as a prussian organisation, only had 40,000 officers by 1939

• mainly recieved info through informers, neighbours spying on each other based upon personal grudges

• Made random arrests

How were concentration camps used across the police state?

The first camps were set up in March 1933 like Dachau, alongside 70 other temporary sites

• 100,000 were imprisoned between 33-34, around 10% of KPD members were taken to the camps. By 1934 however, most were released

• NOLK SS took control of the camp system and closed down most temporary sites

• Himmler redesigned the system to make the killing more systematic with ‘unwelcome’ members of society e.g communists, jews, asocials

• Purpose built camps like Sachsenhausen - September 1936 - by 1938 around 24k were imprisoned

Overall, most individuals spent a short time in camps, it was mostly to create fear across society