BIO HONORS FINAL — THE HIGH-YIELD VERSION

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering genetics, evolution, ecology, and cellular energetics for a high-yield biology honors review.

Genotype

The genes or alleles an organism has (e.g., $Aa$).

Phenotype

The physical trait that is seen or expressed (e.g., brown eyes).

Gene expression

The process described by the connection: DNA $\rightarrow$ mRNA $\rightarrow$ Protein $\rightarrow$ Trait.

Mendelian Inheritance

Normal dominant/recessive inheritance pattern.

Incomplete Dominance

An inheritance pattern where the heterozygote is a blend of traits (e.g., a black mouse and a white mouse producing a gray mouse).

Sex-Linked Traits

Traits located on the $X$ or $Y$ chromosomes; they usually affect males more often because males have only one $X$ chromosome.

Autosomal Traits

Traits located on the non-sex chromosomes, which include the other $44$ chromosomes in humans.

Genotype ratio of a heterozygous cross ($Bb \times Bb$)

$$1 : 2 : 1$$

Phenotype ratio of a heterozygous cross ($Bb \times Bb$)

$$3 \text{ dominant} : 1 \text{ recessive}$$

Karyotype

A picture of chromosomes lined up in pairs, used to detect disorders.

Down syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by an extra chromosome $21$.

Human Chromosome Breakdown

$46$ total chromosomes consisting of $23$ pairs ($22$ pairs of autosomes and $1$ pair of sex chromosomes).

Evolution

A change in allele frequencies within a population over time.

Natural Selection

A non-random process where traits that help survival and reproduction become more common.

Genetic Drift

Random changes in allele frequencies caused by chance, such as a storm killing half a population.

Sexual Selection

An evolutionary mechanism where traits help organisms obtain mates (e.g., peacock feathers).

Gene Flow

An evolutionary mechanism involving the movement of individuals or alleles between populations.

Mutation

Random changes in DNA that create new traits and allele variations.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of stable internal conditions, such as body temperature, blood sugar, and pH.

Trophic Levels

The order of energy flow in an ecosystem: Producer $\rightarrow$ Primary consumer $\rightarrow$ Secondary consumer $\rightarrow$ Tertiary consumer.

10% Rule

The principle that only about $10\%$ of energy transfers upward from one trophic level to the next.

Keystone Species

A species with a huge effect on its ecosystem; its removal can destabilize the food web (e.g., sea otters).

Invasive Species

Non-native organisms that disrupt ecosystems, outcompete natives, and reduce biodiversity.

Autotroph

An organism that makes its own food, such as plants or algae.

Heterotroph

An organism that gets energy by eating other organisms, such as animals or fungi.

Prokaryotic Cells

Smaller, simpler cells (like bacteria) that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells

Larger, complex cells (like plants, animals, and fungi) that possess a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Abiotic Factors

Nonliving components of an ecosystem, such as sunlight and water.

Biotic Factors

Living components of an ecosystem, such as trees and fungi.

Photosynthesis Equation

$$6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{light} \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$$

Light-Dependent Reactions

A stage of photosynthesis that splits water to provide electrons and produces $ATP$ and $NADPH$.

Calvin Cycle

A stage of photosynthesis that uses $ATP$ and $NADPH$ to produce glucose.

Cellular Respiration Equation

$$C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{ATP}$$

Glycolysis

The first stage of respiration occurring in the cytoplasm where glucose is converted to pyruvate.

Krebs Cycle

A stage of respiration occurring in the mitochondria that produces $CO_2$, $NADH$, $FADH_2$, and $ATP$.

Electron Transport Chain

The most important $ATP$ step in respiration where electrons move through proteins and $ATP \text{ synthase}$ uses $H^+$ flow to make $ATP$.

Coenzymes

Organic helper molecules: $NADP^+$ and $NADPH$ for photosynthesis; $NAD^+$, $NADH$, $FAD$, and $FADH_2$ for respiration.