Kennedy: The US by 1963

What was the Global position of the US by 1963?

The US has masterminded:

+ Defensive organisation such as NATO (1949), SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1959).

+ Treaties with countries such as Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines and Japan (all 1951), South Korea (1953) & Taiwan (1954).

Did Kennedy improve America's international position?

- His record on 'unsolved problems of peace and war' was mixed.

- America felt insecure about Soviet nuclear capacity. Kennedy's triumph in the Cuban missile crisis increased that insecurity. The Soviet & Americans had achieved nuclear and naval parity by end of the 1960s.

- Kennedy signed the first treaty to slow down the nuclear arms race & was conscious of American identity abroad. He continued the American imperialist tradition in Latin America.

What was Kennedy's Peace Corps?

- Established in 1961 for 'world development' & 'world peace'. Young people were sent to help poorer nations to help themselves through teaching & technical aid.

- Kennedy claimed it was not a tool of 'propaganda or ideological conflict', but he expressed it would counter Soviet propaganda & improve US creditability.

- 1000s joined. After completing tough training (22% failed), volunteers went to 44 developing countries requested aid. It success was attested by Soviet criticism.

- 71% of Americans approved of it, ten of thousands volunteered, both parties recognised it's success to finance for the next 50 years.

What motivated Kennedy to proposed a mission to the Moon?

- In May 1961, Kennedy thought something needed about the series of US humiliation in Space:

+ After Sputnik in Oct 1957, the Soviets boasted incessantly of their lead in achievements in space.

+ US Satellite launch failure in Nov 1957 caused worldwide embarrassment - British newspaper headlines included 'Ohm What a Flopnik'.

+ In Apr 1961, Soviet Yuri Gagarin orbited the Earth. American Journalists reminded Kennedy that he had pledged to energise the US space program and asked why the Soviet were first to send a human into Space.

What happened with the proposing the Moon Mission?

- In May 1961, he told Congress he wanted to land a man on the moon before 1970.

- He said it would demonstrate US superiority & bring international prestige in the 'battles for minds and souls' in the Cold War arena of the Third World.

- Cost & Motivation: The project cost $40 billion ($225 per American). Privately admitted he wasn't interested in space for science, but solely in beating the Soviets.

- Outcome: By 1969, the U.S landed the first man on the moon; public support rose from 33% in 1961 to 58% by 1965.

What was the state of Economic Prosperity (1961-1963)?

- Overall Status: The U.S remained the world's most prosperous nation, but growth was inconsistent.

- Growth Stats:

+ GNP: Expanded by 20%.

+ Industrial Production: Rose by 22%.

+ Personal Income: Rose by 15%.

- Economic Concerns: JFK faced frequent slowdowns (1961 and late 1962). He was specifically worried about inflation and the international balance of payments deficit.

- Unemployment: Averaged between 5 to 7% during his presidency.

What the situation of 'The Other America' (Poverty) during the Kennedy's presidency?

- Influential literature:

+ John Kenneth Galbraith's The Affluent Society (1958) emphasised the poverty of a permanent American underclass.

+ Michael Harrington (The Other America, 1962): Described the 'poverty-stricken existence' of 40-60 million Americans.

+ Dwight Macdonald (New Yorker essay review): Wrote about the 'invisible poor'.

- Demographics: Poverty affected 20% of the population, disproportionately hitting Black American and Hispanic communities.

- Political Impact: These writings encouraged Kennedy to plan a 'war on poverty' for his second term.

Who was Fannie Lou Hamer (1917-77)?

- Background: A Mississippi sharecropper who became a civil rights icon.

- Key Hardships: Subjected to forced sterilisation (1961); evicted and beaten for attempting to register to vote (1962).

- Political action: Founded the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) in 1964 to challenge the all-white official delegation.

- Legacy: Her televised speech at the Black Mississippians, eventually leading to MFDP delegates being seated in 1968.

What about the Situation about Urban Decay and 'White Flight'? (1)

- The Great Migration: African Americans moved North to escape Jim Crow, but faced new forms of segregation in cities.

- Government Policy: The federal government gave generous help to white veterans to buy suburban homes, while denying similar help to Black veterans.

What about the Situation about Urban Decay and 'White Flight'? (2)

- White flight: White residents moved to the suburbs, stripping cities of their tax base.

- Ghettoisation: Characterised by:

+ Low-quality housing and crowded schools.

+ Notable examples: Harlem (NYC) and South Side (Chicago).

+ Discriminatory financial practices (Redlining) prevented investment in these areas.

What was the situation with Women and the 'New Frontier'?

- Commission on the Status of Women: Established by JFK (urged by female activists).

+ Success: Led to the Equal Pay Act (1963).

+ Failure: The commission still promoted 'special training for marriage and motherhood' and rejected the Equal Right Amendment (ERA).

- Economic Reality (1963): * Women were largely stuck in low-paid 'service' roles (waitresses, cleaners).

+ Educated women were pushed into 'nurturer' roles (nursing, teaching).

- The Stats Gap: * 80% of teachers were women, but only 10% were principals.

+ Only 7% of doctors and 3% of lawyers were women.

What was the situation about legal and social inequality of women?

- Gender Inequality in Law:

+ 18 States refused to allow female jurors.

+ 6 States required a male co-signatory for financial agreements.

+ Schools could legally expel pregnant students or fire pregnant teachers.

- Societal Norms: Sociologist Daniel Patrick Moynihan noted that 'male dominance' was so deep if often went unnoticed.

- Domesticity: 1950s/60s media promoted 'the ideal' housewife. Usage of transquilisers by women doubled between 1958 and 1959 as a result of 'the problem that has no name' or alchol taken refuge in some women.

What was the significance of Betty Friedan & The Feminine Mystique (1963)?

- The Message: Friedan challenged the idea that women's 'destiny' was only to be wives and mothers.

- The 'Concentration Camp' Metaphor: She argued that the suburban home was a 'comfortable concentration camp' that stunted women's potential.

- Impact: The book tapped into a 'reservoir of discontent', sparking the second-wave feminist movement.

- NOW: Freidan went on to establish the National Organisation for Women (NOW) in 1966.

What was the significance about the Youth and the 'New Left'?

- SDS (Students for a Democratic Society): Established in 1960 by Tom Hayden.

- Port Huron Statement (1962): The SDS Manifesto that called for:

1. Participatory democracy (giving power back to the individual).

2. An end to 'national apathy'.

3. Support for the poor and racial minorities.

- Inspiration: Youth were inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, the Beat Generation, and Kennedy's own rhetoric ('Ask not what your country can do for you...').

What were the Tension within the Protest Movements?

- Sexism in Activism: Even within 'progressive' groups like SNCC and SDS, women faced discrimination.

+ Stokely Carmichael (SNCC): Infamously said the 'position for women in the movement was horizontal'.

+ SDS Stats: In 1964, women made up 33% of members but only 6% of the leadership.

- Result: This sexism disillusioned many female activists, leading them to leave these groups and start a dedicated Women's Rights campaign.

What were the situation with Minorities beyond the 'Black American' Experience?

- Mexican-Americans: Faced 'urban ghettos' or rural squalor in states like Arizona, California, and Texas. Key issues were poverty and poor education.

- Native Americans: Suffered from extreme discrimination and poverty, living on reservations or in urban ghettos (e.g., Minneapolis-St Paul).

- Common Struggle: Increased automation in the 1960s decreased the number of 'unskilled occupations', making it harder for these groups to escape poverty.

What was Significant about Stokely Carmichael (1941-98)?

- Background: Caribbean-born; a key participant in the Freedom Rides.

- Shift in Tone: Originally part of the non-violent SNCC, he eventually popularised the phrase 'Black Power'.

- Radicalisation: After 36 arrests and frustration with slow progress, he moved toward more militant views, eventually joining the Black Panthers before emigrating to Africa in 1969.

What was the significance of the 'New Left' & Student Peace Union?

- Student Peace Union (1959-1964): A precursor to larger anti-war movements; focused on nuclear disarmament and peace.

- In 1962, representatives of SDS, SNCC, CORE and the Student Peace Union met at Port Huron, Michigan.

They called on students to:

+ Change the political and social system.

+ Liberate the poor, racial minorities, and all enslaved by conformity.

+ Support a peaceful foreign policy.

- The 'Gap': Students felt a paradox - they were 'bread in at least comfort' but looked out at a world of 'disturbing paradoxes' (poverty vs abundance).

- Goal: To move Americans from 'national apathy' toward 'participatory democracy'.

What is a summary of the USA by 1963?

- The Superpower Paradox: The U.S. was more powerful than the USSR but lived in constant fear of it.

- The Economic Split: It was the most prosperous nation on earth, yet 20% of it's people lived in poverty.

- Social Pressure: By 1963, the 'complacent' 1950s were over. Pressure for change was coming from:

1. African Americans (Civil Rights)

2. Women (Economic/Legal Equality)

3. Youth (Political/Social System Reform)