Final Exam

What is the HPA axis primarily used for?

to regulate stress responses, metabolism and immune function

What is the HPA axis activated by?

stress

What is the pathway for the HPA axis?

The hypothalamus releases CRH, stimulating the pituitary to secrete ACTH, which prompts the adrenal glands to produce cortisol

What terminates the HPA axis to prevent chronic activation?

a negative feedback loop

What cells start the RAAS system?

juxtaglomerular cells (JG) also known as granular cells start the RAAS system by releasing the enzyme renin into the bloodstream

What triggers the RAAS system to be activated?

low blood pressure or low blood volume

What is the process of the RAAS system?

The kidneys release renin, which converts liver-produced angiotensinogen into angiotensin 1. This is converted to active angiotensin 2 by ACE, causing vasoconstriction, aldosterone releases, and sodium/water retention to raise blood pressure

What does the brain primarily maintain homeostasis through?

the hypothalamus, which acts as the central control unit

What are the three main brain mechanisms of homeostasis?

receptors (sensors), control center (integrator), effectors

What are the 5 types of cellular adaptation?

atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia and dysplasia

What is atrophy of a cell?

cell shrinkage

What is hypertrophy of a cell?

cell growth

What is hyperplasia of a cell?

increased cell number

What is metaplasia of a cell?

cell type conversion

What is dysplasia of a cell?

disorder, precancerous growth

What is the chain of infection?

infectious agent, reservoir, portal of exit, mode of transmission, portal of entry, and susceptible host

What is an infectious agent?

the pathogen (bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite) causing the disease

What is a reservoir?

The habitat where the agent lives, grows, and multiplies (e.g., humans, animals, environment, water, food).

What is the portal of exit?

The path by which the pathogen leaves the reservoir (e.g., blood, respiratory tract, skin, mucus membranes).

What is the mode of transmission?

How the pathogen moves to a new host (direct contact, droplet, airborne, vector-borne).

What is the portal of entry?

The opening where the pathogen enters the new host (e.g., mouth, eyes, nose, non-intact skin).

What is a susceptible host?

The person at risk of infection is often with a weakened immune system, poor nutrition, or a lack of immunity.

What is hydrostatic pressure?

it is pushed by blood pressure and moves fluid out of capillaries

What is oncotic pressure?

pulled by plasma protein like albumin and draws fluid back in

What is an example of an oncotic effect?

water following sodium

When does third-spacing occur?

when hydrostatic and oncotic pressures are disrupted, causing massive fluid accumulation in the interstitial tissue-based fluid space or potential body spaces, often leads to localized edema and intravascular depletion

What are the cardinal signs of acute inflammation?

calor (heat), rubor (redness), tumor (swelling), dolor (pain), and loss of function

What causes acute inflammation?

increased blood flow, vascular permeability, and chemical mediators that occur immediately after injury

What is acute inflammation characterized by?

vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and increased blood flow to the injured area

What is the initial vascular response of acute inflammation?

vasoconstriction to reduce inflammation, to localize inflammation, and to lead to the healing process

What is a systemic infection?

an infection involving one or more organ systems outside of the integumentary system

What is a localized infection?

an infection in one organ system

What is cachexia?

muscle wasting, weight loss

What are benign tumors?

noncancerous, slow-growing, and stay confined to their original site (usually encapsulated with clear boundaries)

What are malignant tumors?

cancerous, fast-growing, and invade nearby tissues or spread to other body parts (lack of clear borders)

What are characteristics of cancerous cells?

uncontrolled growth, immortality, and the ability to invade other tissues (metastasis)

What are the characteristics of metabolic acidosis?

low pH, low bicarbonate (DKA, renal failure)

What are the characteristics of metabolic alkalosis?

high pH, high bicarbonate (vomiting, diuretics)

What are the characteristics of respiratory acidosis?

low pH, high carbon dioxide (hypoventilation, COPD)

What are the characteristics of respiratory alkalosis?

high pH, low carbon dioxide (hyperventilation)

What does acidosis mean?

pH < 7.35 meaning high acid/low base

What does alkalosis mean?

pH > 7.45 meaning low acid/high base

What is bicarbonate handled by?

the kidneys

What are mutagens?

agents that cause permanent genetic mutations in DNA, affecting reproductive cells

EX: X-rays, UV light, chemicals

What are teratogens?

cause physical birth defects in a developing fetus without changing the DNA sequence

EX: thalidomide, alcohol, nicotine, infections

What is metabolic syndrome characterized by?

obesity and high blood pressure

What is type 1 diabetes?

autoimmune, destruction of beta cells and insulin deficiency

What is type 2 diabetes?

insulin resistance, the musculoskeletal muscle cells are resistant

What is the primary cause of type 2 diabetes?

lifestyle factors & genetics, obesity (insulin resistance)

What is diabetic ketoacidosis associated with?

type 1 diabetes

How can you tell if someone is in diabetic ketoacidosis?

high glucose and you can smell ketones on their breath from fat cells

What is the main risk factor for diabetic ketoacidosis?

obesity, diet, genetics

What is orthopnea?

the sensation of breathlessness when lying flat, often alleviated by sitting up or using multiple pillows

What is orthopnea, a classic symptom of?

advanced left-sided heart failure

What does left sided heart failure affect?

the lungs

What are signs of right sided heart failure?

increased hydrostatic pressure and edema in the lower extremities

Where do asities come from?

hydrostatic pressure associated with right sided heart failure

If you recline someone in bed with right sided heart failure what will you see?

jugular venous distention

What is a STEMI?

ST elevation myocardial infarction results from total, prolonged coronary artery occlusion, causing full-thickness damage (more severe)

What does a NSTEMI cause?

causes partial occlusion, typically resulting in less damage

What happens with emphysema?

There is a destruction of alveoli

What increases when you have chronic bronchitis?

increased goblet cell production (mucus)

When will you be diagnosed with chronic bronchitis?

a productive cough for 3 months of the year for two consecutive years

What is asthma and how it is treated?

wheezing that is reversible with treatment such as albuterol

Is COPD progressive?

yes

What causes a pulmonary embolism?

right ventricular heart strain under pressure

What happens with a tension pneumothorax?

air is trapped in a one-way valve

What are you worried about with a tension pneumothorax?

a mediastinal shift (heart, trachea shift)

Major complication: chemodynamic collapse (cardiac shock)

What are signs of cyanosis?

blue, reduced oxygen

What is a pleural effusion?

build-up of fluid in the pleural space

What are the symptoms of Zenker's diverticulum?

difficulty swallowing (dysphagia)

What is a characteristic of Zenker diverticulum?

outpouch

What is Schatzki’s ring?

a lower esophageal ring that causes dysphagia with food

What is a symptom of hepatic encephalopathy?

cognitive impairment

What causes hepatic encephalopathy?

liver failure that leads to ammonia buildup

What will your stool look like with a lower GI bleed?

bright red

What will your stool look like with a upper GI bleed?

dark stool, travels longer

What causes esophageal varices?

liver failure which causes a back up in the esophagus caused portal hypertension and varicose veins

What is cholelithiasis?

a gall stone

What is cholecystitis?

inflammation of the gall bladder

What causes jaundice?

high billy rubin and skin looks yellow

What is gout?

inflammation in the joints from uric acid build up (crystals)

What is osteomyelitis?

inflammation of bone tissue due to infection

What is rhabdomyolysis?

a serious, potentially life-threatening syndrome resulting from rapid skeletal muscle breakdown, releasing damaging proteins (myoglobin) and electrolytes into the bloodstream

What is pernicious anemia?

an autoimmune condition where the body cannot absorb enough vitamin B12 due to lack of intrinsic factor

What is polycythemia?

a rare blood disorder characterized by an excess of RBC, which thickens the blood (high levels of hemoglobin)

What is petechiae?

tiny, flat, pinpoint spots

What is thrombocytopenia?

a condition characterized by abnormally low platelet levels, causing risks of excessive bleeding or clotting

What would you being worried about the Factor V Leiden mutation?

worried about clotting (hyper coagulability)

What is Factor V Leiden?

a common inherited mutation that causes blood to clot more easily increasing the risk of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism

What is Von Willebrand disease?

The most common inherited bleeding disorder, where you cannont form blood clots and there is increased bleeding

What is anaphylaxis?

an allergic reaction causing airway constriction

What is angioedema?

deep tissue swelling

What is urticaria?

a rash that looks like raised welts, itchy

What is a clinical sign of graves’ disease?

exophthalmos (bug eyes)

What is Graves disease?

an autoimmune disorder causing hyperthyroidism, where antibodies stimulate the thyroid to overproduce hormones

What is Hashimoto’s Disease?

a chronic autoimmune disorder where the immune system destroys thyroid cells, resulting in hypothyroidism

What is cushings disease?

a rare disorder caused by prolonged exposure to high levels of cortisol, often due to pituitary/adrenal tumors or long-term steroid medication use

What are the characteristics of cushing’s disease?

moon face and buffalo hump

What is Osteoporosis?

a common, often asymptomatic disease causing bones to become weak, brittle, and prone to fracture, particularly in the hip, spine, and wrist