Exam 4

Anatomy II

Filtration generally begins in the corpuscles of the:

Renal cortex

The interlobar a. leads to the ___

Arcuate a.

The interlobar v. leads to the ___

Renal v

What is the outermost layer of the urinary bladder called?

Adventitia

The internal urethral sphincter is composed of___.

Smooth m.

The prostatic urethra is ___ to the membranous urethra

Superior

Water is reabsorbed in the renal tubules by way of:

Osmosis

All are reabsorbed by the proximal convoluted tubule except:

Albumin

Angiotensin II __ blood pressure by ___.

Increases, stimulating aldosterone release by the adrenal cortex

Urine that has a low specific gravity is __ and will appear __ in color.

Dilute, light

Which is not a function of the kidney? 1.) Red blood cell production, 2.) pH regulation, 3.) Elimination of CO2, 4.) Blood pressure regulation

Elimination of CO2

Which of the following describes the sequence by which filtrate flows?

1.) Major calyx>minor calyx>collecting duct>glomerulus>renal pelvis, 2.) Nephron>glomerulus>collecting duct>minor calyx>major calyx>, 3.) Glomerulus>nephron>collecting duct>minor calyx>major calyx>renal pelvis, 4.) Renal pelvis>nephron>minor calyx>major calyx

Glomerulus>nephron>collecting duct>minor calyx>major calyx>renal pelvis

Hypoproteinemia, or low levels of protein in the blood, commonly results in:

Edema

Which of the following ions exerts the greatest influence in maintaining fluid balance?

Sodium

Which of the following may lead to metabolic acidosis?

Chronic diarrhea

The hypothalamus influences ADH secretion in response to all of the following except: 1) Blood CO2 levels, 2) Signals from baroreceptors, 3) Solute concentration in extracellular fluid, 4) Blood pressure changes

Blood CO2 levels

Potassium is mainly found in __ fluid, while sodium is mainly found in __ fluid

Intracellular, extracellular

An increase in aldosterone secretion would result in increased sodium __and potassium __.

Absorption, secretion

What is the range of healthy blood pH?

7.35-7.45

Which term describes the process by which stored complex carbs are broken down?

Glycogenolysis

An essential nutrient is one that:

Must be consumed through the diet

Cellular respiration describes the process by which:

ATP is generated

Which of the following would occur in an individual consuming an extremely low-carbohydrate diet?

1) Increased rate of glycolysis, 2) Increased ketogenesis from the breakdown of protein, 3) Increased ketogenesis from the breakdown of fat, 4) Increased glycogenesis

Increased ketogenesis from the breakdown of fat

Most of the fats consumed in the diet are in the form of:

Triglycerides

Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are classified as __________ nutrients, while vitamins and minerals are classified as __________ nutrients. a) micronutrients; macronutrients b) macronutrients; micronutrients c) essential; non-essential d) organic; inorganic

macronutrients; micronutrients

According to the USDA "MyPlate" guidelines, __________ of a healthy meal should consist of grains and proteins. a) 1/4 b) 1/2 c) 3/4 d) 100%

1/2

According to the USDA "MyPlate" guidelines, what proportion of a healthy plate should consist of fruits and vegetables?
a) One-quarter
b) One-third
c) One-half
d) Two-thirds

One-half

There are 45–50 __________ nutrients, which means they must be included in the diet because the body cannot manufacture them in sufficient quantities for healthy physiology. a) organic b) essential c) macronutrient d) saturated

essential

Which of the following best describes the role of insoluble polysaccharides, such as cellulose, in the human diet?
a) They are the primary source of fuel for red blood cells.
b) They provide fiber to support intestinal health and defecation.
c) They are broken down into glucose to synthesize ATP.
d) They serve as essential chemical messengers for cell signaling.

They provide fiber to support intestinal health and defecation

Why are "essential" nutrients, such as linoleic acid, required in the diet?
a) They are the only nutrients that can be used to create ATP.
b) The body cannot produce them in sufficient quantities for healthy physiology.
c) They act as the primary catalysts for all anabolic reactions.
d) They prevent the oxidation of water-soluble vitamins.

The body cannot produce them in sufficient quantities for healthy physiology

While many cells use glucose to produce ATP, __________ and __________ are particularly dependent on it as their primary energy source. a) muscle cells; bone cells b) liver cells; skin cells c) neurons; red blood cells d) adipose cells; connective tissue

neurons; red blood cells

Dietary lipids found in meat and dairy are typically __________ fats, while those found in olive oil and seeds are typically __________ fats. a) unsaturated; saturated b) saturated; unsaturated c) essential; non-essential d) neutral; acidic

saturated; unsaturated

Linoleic and linolenic acids are classified as __________, and are commonly found in most vegetable oils. a) saturated fats b) essential fatty acids c) monosaccharides d) micronutrients

essential fatty acids

In the nervous system, lipids are essential for the formation of __________ to insulate neurons, while in the rest of the body, they contribute to __________ stability. a) myelin; cell membrane b) glucose; cytoplasm c) proteins; ribosome d) enzymes; nucleus

myelin; cell membrane

Lipids play a critical role in the endocrine and immune systems as they act as __________ (such as prostaglandins). a) energy storage b) chemical messengers c) structural fibers d) digestive enzymes

chemical messengers

Adipose tissue, a form of stored lipid, provides the body with two major physical benefits: __________ and __________. a) movement; strength b) cushioning; insulation c) hydration; detoxification d) flexibility; circulation

cushioning; insulation

Nutrients are essential substances that the body requires to promote normal __________ and __________. a) circulation; respiration b) growth; development c) digestion; excretion d) inflammation; healing

growth; development

In a typical diet, the most abundant lipids consumed are __________, which are commonly referred to as neutral fats. a) phospholipids b) cholesterol c) triglycerides d) steroid hormones

triglycerides

Lipids are vital to human physiology because they facilitate the __________ and serve as a primary means of __________ in certain conditions. a) transport of oxygen; protein synthesis b) absorption of fat-soluble vitamins; energy storage c) digestion of carbohydrates; hormone secretion d) regulation of blood pH; waste removal

absorption of fat-soluble vitamins; energy storage

Proteins found in sources like dairy, meat, and soybeans are considered __________ because they contain all eight __________ amino acids. a) incomplete; non-essential b) complete; essential c) micronutrient; primary d) saturated; secondary

complete; essential

To synthesize a new protein, the body requires a complete set of __________ different amino acids. a) 8 b) 12 c) 20 d) 50

20

A patient recovering from an injury is in a state of "positive nitrogen balance." Which of the following conditions is most likely contributing to this state?
a) The patient is experiencing high levels of stress hormones like cortisol.
b) The patient is malnourished and breaking down muscle mass for energy.
c) The patient has sufficient caloric intake and favorable levels of growth hormone.
d) The patient's diet is currently lacking two essential amino acids.

The patient has sufficient caloric intake and favorable levels of growth hormone.

A patient who is severely stressed or malnourished is likely in a state of __________ nitrogen balance and may __________ protein mass. a) positive; gain b) negative; lose c) neutral; maintain d) positive; lose

negative; lose

Tissues build proteins most effectively during a positive nitrogen balance, which requires a sufficient caloric intake from __________ and high levels of __________ hormones. a) minerals; stress b) carbohydrates and fats; growth c) vitamins; thyroid d) water; steroid

carbohydrates and fats; growth

Most vitamins are classified as micronutrients that serve as __________ to assist in the process of catalysis. a) substrates b) coenzymes c) reactants d) products

coenzymes

Vitamins A and E are:       a) fat soluble           b) water soluble

fat soluble

Which of the following is a fat-soluble vitamin that is essential for night vision as a component of rhodopsin in rod photoreceptors? a) Vitamin A b) Vitamin B12 c) Vitamin C d) Folic acid

Vitamin A

__________ is a water-soluble vitamin critical for DNA replication during fetal development, while __________ is essential for the production of red blood cells. a) Vitamin D; Calcium b) Folic acid (B9); Vitamin B12 c) Vitamin K; Iron d) Vitamin E; Vitamin C

Folic acid (B9); Vitamin B12

In the heart, the entry of __________ (Ca++) into cells causes __________ that is necessary for E-C coupling during a heart beat. a) potassium; repolarization b) calcium; depolarization c) sodium; inhibition d) chloride; stabilization

calcium; depolarization

Calcium acts as a secondary messenger to influence protein functions, such as when it binds to __________ in smooth muscle. a) rhodopsin b) calmodulin c) hemoglobin d) pepsin

calmodulin

Incomplete proteins are defined by their lack of one or more of the __________ essential amino acids. a) 20 b) 8 c) 10 d) 45

8

In addition to being used to synthesize new tissues, amino acids from dietary proteins can also be __________ in order to __________. a) stored; insulate organs b) broken down; make energy c) filtered; regulate blood pH d) emulsified; facilitate fat absorption

broken down; make energy

A __________ nitrogen balance is a critical determinant that allows tissues to build new proteins, provided that __________ amino acids are present. a) negative; non-essential b) positive; all needed c) neutral; essential d) positive; only branched-chain

positive; all needed

Metabolic processes that focus on building large molecules from smaller components are known as __________, while those that break down large molecules are __________. a) catabolic; anabolic b) anabolic; catabolic c) aerobic; anaerobic d) oxidative; reductive

anabolic; catabolic

Cellular respiration is a catabolic process where food molecules are broken down and their energy is specifically used to produce __________ . a) Glucose b) ATP c) Glycogen d) NAD⁺

ATP

In the three stages of processing energy-containing nutrients, the final stage involves the __________ production of energy within the __________ . a) anaerobic; cytoplasm b) catabolic; GI system c) aerobic; mitochondria d) anabolic; ribosomes

aerobic; mitochondria

Identify the correct redox definitions: When a molecule loses electrons it is __________, and when it gains electrons it is __________. a) oxidized; reduced b) reduced; oxidized c) phosphorylated; hydrolyzed d) synthesized; decomposed

oxidized; reduced

Cellular metabolism involves redox reactions: some molecules gain electrons while others lose them. During the citric acid cycle, coenzymes gain electrons (e.g., NAD⁺ becomes NADH), and so are said to be _________.     a) oxidized      b) reduced

reduced

In the body, redox reactions are catalyzed by enzymes with the help of __________ like NAD⁺ and FAD, which act as high-energy electron carriers . a) hormones b) coenzymes c) substrates d) lipids

coenzymes

Which mechanism of ATP synthesis involves the direct, enzyme-catalyzed transfer of a phosphate group from a high-energy intermediate to ADP without requiring the electron transport chain ? a) Oxidative phosphorylation b) Substrate-level phosphorylation c) Photophosphorylation d) Beta-oxidation

Substrate-level phosphorylation

Substrate-level phosphorylation occurs during specific metabolic pathways, including __________ and the __________ . a) the electron transport chain; GI digestion b) glycolysis; citric acid cycle c) osmosis; active transport d) protein synthesis; transcription

glycolysis; citric acid cycle

Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in the _______

a) cytosol       b) mitochondria         c) nucleus        d) sarcolemma

mitochondria

During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons carried by NADH and FADH₂ pass through the electron transport chain to create a(n) __________ gradient that powers ATP synthase . a) glucose b) lipid c) electrochemical (proton) d) oxygen

electrochemical (proton)

In the process of oxidative phosphorylation, __________ serves as the final electron acceptor, which allows the synthesis of ATP to continue . a) Water b) Carbon dioxide c) Oxygen d) Nitrogen

Oxygen

In the first stage of processing energy-containing nutrients, the __________ system is responsible for the __________ of nutrients so they can be utilized by the body. a) endocrine; secretion b) GI (gastrointestinal); digestion and absorption c) nervous; regulation d) muscular; contraction

GI (gastrointestinal); digestion and absorption

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions are fundamental to metabolism because they involve the transfer of __________ from one molecule to another. a) protons b) electrons c) neutrons d) oxygen atoms

electrons

During the breakdown of nutrients, coenzymes such as NAD⁺ and FAD function by accepting __________ electrons, which are then delivered to the __________ to produce ATP. a) low-energy; ribosomes b) high-energy; electron transport chain c) stable; nucleus d) positively charged; smooth ER

high-energy; electron transport chain

In the process of oxidative phosphorylation, the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi is powered by the flow of __________ back through the enzyme __________. a) electrons; kinase b) oxygen; hemoglobin c) H⁺ (protons); ATP synthase d) sodium; ATPase

H⁺ (protons); ATP synthase

According to the cellular respiration equation, glucose and __________ react to produce carbon dioxide, __________, and energy for ATP production. a) nitrogen; methane b) oxygen; water c) hydrogen; glucose d) carbon; ammonia

oxygen; water

Glycolysis, often referred to as "sugar splitting," occurs in the __________ and does not require __________ to proceed. a) mitochondrial matrix; enzymes b) cytosol; oxygen (O2) c) smooth ER; glucose d) nucleus; ATP

cytosol; oxygen (O2)

During the investment phase of glycolysis, the cell spends __________ ATP, but the process ultimately results in a net gain of __________ ATP per glucose molecule. a) 4; 2 b) 2; 2 c) 0; 4 d) 2; 30

2; 2

If oxygen is unavailable, pyruvic acid follows an anaerobic pathway and ferments into __________; if oxygen is present, it enters the __________ to begin aerobic respiration. a) Acetyl CoA; cytosol b) lactic acid; mitochondria c) glucose; ribosome d) glycogen; lysosome

lactic acid; mitochondria

The Krebs Cycle occurs in the __________ and is a multistep process that yields 2 ATP, CO2, and reduced coenzymes such as __________ and FADH2. a) intermembrane space; glucose b) mitochondrial matrix; NADH c) cytosol; pyruvic acid d) cristae; lactic acid

mitochondrial matrix; NADH

In the electron transport chain, the flow of __________ back into the mitochondrial matrix drives oxidative phosphorylation via the enzyme __________. a) electrons; kinase b) H⁺ (protons); ATP synthase c) oxygen; hemoglobin d) carbon dioxide; amylase

H⁺ (protons); ATP synthase

While glycolysis and the Krebs cycle produce some energy, the total net energy gain of aerobic respiration is approximately __________ ATP per glucose molecule. a) 2 b) 4 c) 30 d) 100

30

When energy levels are high, the liver and muscles perform __________ to store glucose as glycogen, but when energy is low, __________ is used to split glycogen back into glucose-6P. a) gluconeogenesis; glycolysis b) glycogenesis; glycogenolysis c) oxidation; reduction d) hydrolysis; synthesis

glycogenesis; glycogenolysis

The process of __________ occurs in the liver when energy is low and involves creating new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like __________ or glycerol. a) glycogenesis; fatty acids b) gluconeogenesis; amino acids c) glycolysis; starch d) glycogenolysis; cellulose

gluconeogenesis; amino acids

Glucose typically enters cells through the process of __________, which is often triggered by the hormone __________ calling for the placement of transporters into the cell membrane. a) active transport; glucagon b) facilitated diffusion; insulin c) simple diffusion; adrenaline d) osmosis; cortisol

facilitated diffusion; insulin

During glycolysis, glucose is split into two 3-carbon fragments that are eventually oxidized into __________, resulting in a net gain of __________ ATP per glucose molecule. a) pyruvic acid; 2 b) lactic acid; 4 c) citric acid; 30 d) oxaloacetic acid; 0

pyruvic acid; 2

To initiate aerobic pathways, pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrion via __________ and is converted into __________, a process that removes one carbon and adds a coenzyme. a) facilitated diffusion; lactic acid b) active transport; Acetyl CoA c) simple diffusion; citric acid d) osmosis; oxaloacetic acid

active transport; Acetyl CoA

The Krebs Cycle begins when Acetyl CoA combines with __________ to form __________, which is then further oxidized to yield energy carriers. a) pyruvic acid; glucose b) oxaloacetic acid; citric acid c) lactic acid; ATP d) NADH; FADH2

oxaloacetic acid; citric acid

The Electron Transport Chain requires __________ to accept electrons from reduced coenzymes, and it uses the released energy to push __________ out of the mitochondrial matrix to build a high concentration gradient. a) carbon dioxide; ATP b) oxygen (O2); H+ (protons) c) glucose; water d) nitrogen; NADH

oxygen (O2); H+ (protons)

Lipids are a highly concentrated energy source providing __________ compared to other nutrients, and their breakdown (lipolysis) is catalyzed by the enzyme __________ . a) 4 kcal/gm; pepsin b) 4 kcal/gm; amylase c) 9 kcal/gm; lipase d) 9 kcal/gm; trypsin

9 kcal/gm; lipase

During the process of beta-oxidation, the body breaks down fatty acids by removing __________ at a time to produce __________, which then enters the citric acid cycle. a) 1 carbon; glucose b) 2 carbons; acetyl CoA c) 3 carbons; pyruvic acid d) 6 carbons; glycogen

2 carbons; acetyl CoA

Lipogenesis occurs when cellular energy levels are _____ and involves the ______ of TAG (triacylglycerol).

a) high; building   b) high; splitting           c) low; building     d) low; splitting

high; building

When the body has all needed amino acids present and is in a __________ nitrogen balance, it uses dietary protein to __________ . a) negative; make energy b) neutral; store fat c) positive; build and replace proteins d) positive; produce ammonia

positive; build and replace proteins

In a state of negative nitrogen balance caused by stress or malnutrition, amino acids are converted into __________ through a process called transamination. a) glucose b) triglycerides c) keto acids d) essential fatty acids

keto acids

The breakdown of proteins for energy leads to the production of toxic __________, which the liver must then convert into __________ for safe excretion by the kidneys. a) urea; ammonia b) ammonia; urea c) ketones; glucose d) lactic acid; acetyl CoA

ammonia; urea

A patient undergoing rapid lipolysis because carbohydrates are unavailable may produce __________ as a byproduct of __________ . a) urea; protein synthesis b) ketone bodies; beta-oxidation c) insulin; lipogenesis d) glucose; transamination

ketone bodies; beta-oxidation

Insulin is the key hormone of the __________ state, a period during which __________ exceeds catabolism. a) postabsorptive; catabolism b) absorptive; anabolism c) fasting; metabolism d) exercise; glycolysis

absorptive; anabolism

Insulin increases the uptake of glucose by cells and increases the storage of glucose as __________ in the liver and muscles. a) glucagon b) keto acids c) glycogen d) triglycerides

glycogen

 Insulin causes a(n) _____ in glucose uptake and oxidation in cells; in addition, insulin leads to _____.

a) increase;  hunger   b) increase;  satiety      c) decrease;  hunger        d) decrease;  satiety

increase;  satiety

In the liver, insulin causes a(n) __________ in the conversion of glucose into lipids and a(n) __________ in the process of gluconeogenesis. a) increase; decrease b) decrease; increase c) stabilization; increase d) increase; stabilization

increase; decrease

Besides its metabolic effects on glucose, insulin also increases the transport of __________ into cells to promote __________ synthesis. a) fatty acids; lipid b) amino acids; protein c) glucose; glycogen d) electrolytes; hormone

amino acids; protein

According to the regulation of food intake, hunger is triggered by the release of __________ from the __________ hypothalamic area. a) CRH; ventromedial b) orexins; lateral c) insulin; arcuate d) leptin; posterior

orexins; lateral

The sensation of hunger is stimulated by the hormone __________ from the stomach, while the sensation of satiety is stimulated by __________ from fat cells. a) insulin; glucagon b) leptin; ghrelin c) ghrelin; leptin d) cortisol; adrenaline

c) ghrelin; leptin

Feeling full (satiety) results from the release of __________ from the active __________ nucleus. a) NPY; lateral hypothalamic b) CRH; ventromedial c) orexin; arcuate d) insulin; somatic

CRH; ventromedial

Neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus that promote satiety (POMC/CART) are stimulated by signals from the __________ and the hormone __________. a) vagal nerve; insulin b) optic nerve; glucagon c) sciatic nerve; thyroxine d) sympathetic nerve; adrenaline

vagal nerve; insulin

If a drug were to inhibit the function of neurons in the ventromedial nucleus (VMN) while leaving the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) unaffected, what would be the most likely result? 

a) The person would feel full constantly and lose weight rapidly.

b) The person would experience persistent hunger and potential overeating.

c) The person would stop producing insulin and leptin. 

d) The person would lose the ability to perform glycogenesis in the muscles.

The person would experience persistent hunger and potential overeating.

The kidneys are located in the lumbar region and are described as __________, meaning they are situated behind the lining of the abdominal cavity. a) intraperitoneal b) retroperitoneal c) visceral d) subcapsular

retroperitoneal