Western Civ Finals

I. The Reformation

1. Why was the printing press important? Who invented it and when?

It allowed propaganda/news/information to be spread quickly.

German goldsmith and metalworker Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable-type printing press in Mainz, Germany, around 1440. 

What were Luther’s main beliefs?

Salvation by faith alone, Bible as sole authority, priesthood of all believers

the three solas of the Reformation: sola fide, sola scriptura, and sola Christus.

1. What was the significance of Luther’s 95 Theses?

it sparked the Reformation (document directly challenged the Catholic Church’s corrupt Indulgences)

1. Who was involved in the Diet of Worms?

Diet of Worms = imperial assembly of the Holy Roman Empire

• Martin Luther (got tried.)

• Emperor Charles V, Alexander (against Luther)

• Fredrick the Wise (Luther’s political protecter - safely extracted Luther to prevent execution from Edict of Worms)

what was Edict of Worms

outcome of Diet of Worms

Declared Luther as a heretic - ordered him arrested + killed

What did Calvin believe?

Predestination, theocracy

Why did Henry VIII break away from the Catholic Church?

because Pope Clement VII refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

Henry wanted to marry Anne Boleyn to get a male heir.

How did the Catholic Church attempt to undermine the Protestant Reformation and/or reform the Church?

Catholic/Counter Reformation, Ignatius of Loyola/Mission of Jesuits, Council of Trent and the Index of Forbidden Books

What was Catholic/Counter Reformation

a period of spiritual revival and institutional reform within the Catholic Church between 1545 and 1648. Launched in response to the Protestant Reformation, the movement aimed to eliminate clerical corruption, reaffirm core Catholic doctrines, and halt the spread of Protestantism

What was , Ignatius of Loyola/Mission of Jesuits

Ignatius of Loyola founded the Mission of Jesuits — to spread Catholicism

what was the Council of Trent and the Index of Forbidden Books

was a pivotal 16th-century ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. As the cornerstone of the Counter-Reformation, it clarified Catholic doctrine against Protestant heresies and reformed internal church corruption. The Index of Forbidden Books (Index Librorum Prohibitorum) was a continually updated catalog of writings the Church deemed heretical or immoral

1. What was the Edict of Nantes and what was its impact on the Huguenots? 

1598 - granted France's Calvinist Protestants (the Huguenots) substantial religious, civil, and political rights

What was the result of the Treaty of Westphalia?

ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic

What were the causes and effects of the 30 Years War?

caused by religious conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire, political power struggles among European nations, and territorial disputes.

effects included widespread destruction in Europe, the rise of state sovereignty, and the establishment of treaties that recognized the coexistence of Protestant and Catholic states.

What is capitalism? How were the Dutch impacted by this economic system?

capitalism = economic system where private individuals or businesses own and control the means of production, driven by profit rather than state control

Lead to Dutch golden age, but more colonial exploration and slavery

what is mercantilism? How was Spain impacted?

Mercantilism was an economic theory popular in the16-18 centuries which posited that a nation's power depended on its wealth, particularly in gold and silver

causing chronic inflation and the collapse of domestic industries. Driven by the goal of hoarding gold and silver, Spain neglected internal manufacturing, over-relied on imports for basic goods, and bled its treasury through constant warfare

Monarchies

section 2

1. How did Elizabeth solve religious and financial problems in England?

Elizabeth I implemented the Act of Uniformity to create a middle ground between Catholics and Protestant

also reformed taxation to stabilize England's finances — avoided unnecessary wars, cut down on royal expenses

How did Philip II of Spain challenge Elizabeth?

Philip II of Spain challenged Elizabeth I by launching the Spanish Armada in 1588, aiming to overthrow her and re-establish Catholicism in England. This military campaign ultimately failed, marking a significant decline of Spanish naval power.

How did Charles I upset Parliament and the Puritans?

Charles I upset Parliament and the Puritans by attempting to rule without Parliament (he thought he had divine right of kings).

imposing taxes unilaterally, and enforcing Anglican practices, which were seen as too close to Catholicism,

lead to increasing tensions and the English Civil War.

Who was Oliver Cromwell and who did he lead?

Oliver Cromwell was a military and political leader who led the Parliamentarian forces during the English Civil War. He later became the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

he created new model army — which took gov. control + killed those who disobeyed

1. What happened to Charles I?

He was executed after being tried for treason — helped show no more divine right of the kings

What did James II do to upset Parliament?

He was Catholic, promoted Catholicism, allowed Catholics to be in office (which parliment opposed)

What was the Glorious Revolution?

The Glorious Revolution was the overthrow of King James II of England in 1688, leading to the ascension of William of Orange and Mary II, which established a constitutional monarchy.

Very little violence (they basically came in and just took the throne).

What was guaranteed in the English Bill of Rights?

established a constitutional monarchy in England. It limited the powers of the Crown and firmly guaranteed the supremacy of the parliment (no divine rights)

What is absolutism?

Absolutism is a political doctrine where a single ruler holds absolute power and authority over the state, often justified by divine right. Under absolutism, legislative authority is centralized and the monarch controls every aspect of governance without significant checks from other branches of government.

Why was Versailles important to Louis’ reign?

Versailles was important to Louis XIV's reign as it served as his opulent palace and the center of political power in France. It symbolizes his absolute monarchy, allowing him to control the nobility and showcase his wealth and authority.

What were Peter the Great’s accomplishments?

Peter the Great's accomplishments included modernizing the Russian military, reforming the government, and establishing Saint Petersburg as the new capital of Russia. He focused on Westernization efforts to strengthen Russia and expand its territory.
Westernization — forced people to cut their beards, but made the country less like it was still in the middle ages

Age of Revolutions

section 3

What ideas and beliefs were challenged during the Scientific Revolution?

The Scientific Revolution challenged traditional views of the universe, particularly the geocentric model (earth in center of universe), proposing instead a heliocentric model (Sun in the center). It also questioned established authorities, including the Church, as science began to rely on observation and experimentation over dogma.

What new ideas and beliefs emerged to replace the old during the Scientific Revolution?q

geocentrical model -) heliocentrical model

objects naturally rest -) newton’s laws of physics (gravity and motion)

scientific method and ideas of medicine were replaced

What impact did the advancements of the Scientific Revolution have on society?

The advancements of the Scientific Revolution led to a shift in thinking, promoting rationalism and empirical evidence, which undermined traditional beliefs and institutions. It paved the way for modern science, influencing philosophy, politics, and education.

progress, reason, nature, happiness, liberty

Who were Copernicus; Kepler; Galileo; Newton?

Copernicus = the first to propose a heliocentric model of the universe

Kepler = formulated laws of planetary motion

Galileo = conducted experiments with motion and telescope observations

Newton = developed laws of motion and universal gravitation.

What were the ideas/achievements of the following? (John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Denis Diderot, Rene Descartes, Adam Smith, Isaac Newton, Mary Wollstonecraft)

John Locke = advocated for natural rights and government by consent (people are good)

Thomas Hobbes = introduced the social contract theory (people are born evil/bad)

Voltaire = championed freedom of speech and religion

Montesquieu = promoted separation of powers

Rousseau = emphasized general will and popular sovereignty

Denis Diderot = co-editor of the Encyclopédie

Rene Descartes = father of modern philosophy and rationalism

Adam Smith = introduced economic principles of capitalism

Isaac Newton = formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation

Mary Wollstonecraft = argued for women's rights and education.

What were salons?

salons were social gatherings in the 17th and 18th centuries where intellectuals, artists, and political leaders discussed ideas, promoting Enlightenment principles and fostering knowledge.
mostly women led these

What were the important ideas of the Enlightenment? What were the effects of the Enlightenment?

The Enlightenment emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority, leading to advancements in science, political theory, and human rights. Its effects included the promotion of democratic ideals, the questioning of monarchies, and significant social and cultural transformations.

What are the stages of a revolution?

The stages of a revolution typically include the emergence of discontent, the creation of an opposition movement, the escalation of conflict, the overthrow of the existing regime, and the establishment of a new political framework.

How was the French Revolution inspired by the Enlightenment?

The French Revolution was inspired by Enlightenment ideas such as the emphasis on reason, individual rights, and the critique of traditional authority. Thinkers like Rousseau and Voltaire influenced revolutionary leaders and fueled desires for liberty, equality, and fraternity.

What were the long term causes of the French Revolution? Immediate causes?

The long term causes of the French Revolution included the social structure of the Old Regime, economic hardship, and the influence of Enlightenment ideas.

Immediate causes involved discontent with King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette's extravagant lifestyle, increasing tensions among the Three Estates, and the calling of the Estates General in 1789.

How did the revolutionaries attempt to destroy the power of the Old Regime?

The revolutionaries sought to dismantle the Old Regime by establishing the National Assembly, which represented the common people, pledging the Tennis Court Oath to create a new constitution, enacting the Declaration of the Rights of Man to assert individual liberties, storming the Bastille as a symbol of tyranny, and organizing the Women’s March on Versailles to demand bread and invoke change.

How did the French Revolution betray its original goal?

unleashing violence and tyranny through the actions of radical factions like the Jacobins.

Figures such as Robespierre led the Reign of Terror, where many perceived enemies of the revolution were executed by guillotine under the policies of the Committee of Public Safety, undermining the principles of liberty and equality.

Why is the French Revolution significant to Western history?

It dismantled absolute monarchy, abolished the feudal system, and established universal concepts of equality before the law

How and why did Napoleon come to power?

Napoleon came to power following the instability of the Directory, a government weakened by corruption and economic turmoil. His military successes, particularly in Italy, and the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 allowed him to establish himself as First Consul, eventually leading to the establishment of the Napoleonic Empire.

What led to Napoleon’s downfall?

Napoleon's downfall was attributed to his disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812, failure of the Continental System that aimed to weaken Britain through economic blockade, and the events of the Hundred Days, which led to his ultimate defeat at Waterloo in 1815.

The Hundred Days= 1815 when Napoleon escaped from exile on Elba, returned to France, regained power, and led his army before being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.

What were Napoleon’s positive contributions to Western Civ.?

the Napoleonic codes = a set of civil laws established by Napoleon that reformed legal systems, ensuring rights and equality for citizens.

Other contributions include promoting meritocracy in government and education, consolidating the principles of the French Revolution, and advancing nationalism throughout Europe.

How did Europe attempt to restore the balance of power after Napoleon’s conquests?

The Congress of Vienna, held in 1814-1815, aimed to restore stability and balance of power in Europe after Napoleon's conquests by

redrawing territorial boundaries,

restoring monarchies,

establishing a framework for diplomatic relations among the great powers to prevent future conflicts.

19th century

4th section

What was the Enclosure Movement? What was the Agricultural Revolution? How did these things lead to the Industrial Revolution?

enclosure movement = the process where common lands were fenced off for private use, leading to increased agricultural efficiency.

The Agricultural Revolution involved agricultural innovations that boosted food production,

both supported population growth and provided labor for industrial factories, fueling the Industrial Revolution.

Where did the Industrial Revolution begin? Why did it start there?

Britain because it had abundant natural resources, a strong naval presence, and capital for investment, enabling rapid industrial growth.

What were the positive impacts of the Industrial Revolution?

The Industrial Revolution led to the establishment of labor unions, which advocated for workers' rights, improved working conditions, and fair wages. Additionally, various labor laws were enacted to address issues like child labor and workplace safety, contributing to social reforms.

How did cities change as a result of the Industrial Revolution?

Cities experienced rapid urbanization, with populations swelling due to migration from rural areas for factory jobs. This growth led to overcrowding, increased demand for housing, and the development of infrastructure such as transport systems and sanitation.

What class tensions arose because the Industrial Revolution?

The Industrial Revolution created significant tensions between the working class and the bourgeoisie, as industrial workers sought better pay and conditions while the capitalist class aimed to maximize profits. This often resulted in social unrest and calls for reforms.

What new economic theories developed in the 19th Century to address the increasing gap between the rich and the poor? What were the main ideas of these theories?

In the 19th Century, new economic theories such as socialism and communism emerged to address the growing disparity between the rich and the poor. These theories developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

advocated for the collective ownership of the means of production and sought to establish a classless society where wealth was distributed more equitably.

What were the reasons for Imperialism in the 19th Century? What were some of the negative effects of Imperialism?

social darwinism and the desire for economic expansion fueled imperialist ambitions, leading to the exploitation of colonies.

Negative effects: erasure, economic deprivation, and social disruption in colonized regions.

How did Nationalism contribute to the unification of nations and World War II

Nationalism played a crucial role in the unification of nations by fostering a sense of shared identity and purpose among people with common cultural, linguistic, or historical backgrounds. However, it also contributed to tensions and rivalries that escalated into conflicts, ultimately influencing the causes of World War II.

What is realpolitik? How did Otto von Bismarck use realpolitik to unify Germany? (“Blood & Iron,” Seven Weeks War, Franco-Prussian War, Kaiser Wilhelm I)

Realpolitik is a pragmatic approach to politics emphasizing practical and tactical considerations over moral or ideological ones. Otto von Bismarck employed realpolitik by utilizing military force, diplomatic manipulation, and strategic wars, such as the Seven Weeks War and the Franco-Prussian War, to unify Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm I.

How did Italy unify in the 19th Century? (Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel) 

Giuseppe Mazzini, who inspired the movement for a unified Italy,

Camillo di Cavour, who used diplomacy and war to achieve unification,

Giuseppe Garibaldi led military campaigns.

Victor Emmanuel II, King of Sardinia, became the first king of a united Italy.

How did the 19th Century pave the way for World War I?

rise of militarism, nationalist movements, and the formation of alliances that disrupted the balance of power in Europe.

Kaiser Wilhelm II's aggressive foreign policy and competition for colonies heightened tensions (leading to the outbreak of the war)

World War I & Russian Revolution

section 5

What were the immediate and long term causes of World War I? (Militarism, Alliances, Nationalism, Imperialism, Assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand)

immediate causes: assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Long term causes: militarism, alliances, nationalism, and imperialism that created an environment ripe for conflict.

Who made up the Triple Entente (Allied Powers) and the Triple Alliance (Central Powers)? Why were these alliances significant to the war?

Triple entente = Britain, France, Russia

Triple Alliance = Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.

These alliances were significant as they created a framework for mutual defense, escalating a regional conflict into a global war

What was the Schlieffen Plan?

a plan to avoid two front war in Germany (against France and Russian) — included a rapid attack on France through Belgium, followed by a focus on Russia.

What was the significance Battles of Verdun, the Somme, Gallipoli? 

These battles were significant as they represented some of the largest and deadliest confrontations in World War I, highlighting the brutal nature of trench warfare and resulting in massive casualties without decisive territorial changes.
In these three battles total, around 1 million soldiers died

What were some of the new weapons used in WWI? What was their impact on the war? 

Some of the new weapons used in WWI included machine guns, tanks, poison gas, submarines, and aircraft. Their impact was profound, leading to increased lethality on the battlefield, changing tactics, and contributing to the high casualty rates.

How was unrestricted submarine warfare used in WWI?

Unrestricted submarine warfare was a naval strategy employed by Germany during World War I, allowing submarines to sink ships without warning, including civilian vessels. This tactic aimed to disrupt Allied supply lines and played a crucial role in drawing the United States into the conflict.

What was the significance of the Zimmerman Telegram/Note?

The Zimmermann Telegram was a secret diplomatic communication sent by Germany to Mexico in 1917, proposing a military alliance against the United States. Its interception and revelation contributed to shifting public opinion in the U.S. toward entering World War I.

What problems did Russia face at the beginning of the 20^th century?

Russia faced significant political unrest, economic challenges, and social discontent, including a lack of modernization and widespread poverty. These factors contributed to the eventual revolutionary movements that led to the fall of the Russian Empire.

Bloody sunday

Loss of Japanese-Russian war

What happened to Russia during WWI? How did WWI trigger the Russian Revolution?

During World War I, Russia suffered immense military defeats, severe economic hardship, and widespread social unrest, which eroded public support for the Tsarist regime. These issues contributed to the 1917 Russian Revolution, leading to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the rise of Bolshevik power.

What were the stages of the Russian Revolution? What happened during each stage? What/who were the important groups/individuals? (February Revolution, provisional government, October Revolution, Kerensky, Trotsky, Lenin, Bolsheviks vs. Mensheviks)

The Russian Revolution occurred in two main stages: the February Revolution, which led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of a provisional government; and the October Revolution, wherein the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, overthrew the provisional government. Key individuals included Tsar Nicholas II, Aleksandr Kerensky who led the provisional government, and the significant ideological divide between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.

What was the result of the Russian Revolution? How did Russia change? (USSR, Stalin)

The Russian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Tsarist regime and the establishment of the Soviet Union (USSR). Under Stalin's leadership, the USSR underwent significant political and economic transformations, including the rise of a totalitarian state and rapid industrialization.

What were Wilson’s 14 Points? What was their goal?

Wilson's 14 Points were a set of principles proposed by President Woodrow Wilson in 1918 aimed at ensuring lasting peace after World War I. They advocated for open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, self-determination for nations, and the establishment of the League of Nations to prevent future conflicts.

How is Wilson different from George and Clemenceau?

Wilson advocated for peace and self-determination, while George and Clemenceau sought reparations and punishment for Germany. Additionally, Wilson emphasized international cooperation through the League of Nations, contrasting with the more punitive approaches of his counterparts.

What was the Treaty of Versailles? How did it impact Germany and the path to WWII?

The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty that ended World War I, imposing heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany. Its harsh terms contributed to economic hardship and political instability in Germany, setting the stage for the rise of Adolf Hitler and the onset of World War II.

Interwar Period and WWII

section 6

What were some of the flaws of the Weimar Republic?

The Weimar Republic faced economic instability, political extremism, and a lack of popular support, which weakened its governance and led to its eventual collapse.

What happened during the Great Depression?

The Great Depression was a global economic downturn that began in 1929 and lasted throughout the 1930s, resulting in massive unemployment, widespread poverty, and significant political changes, including the rise of totalitarian regimes.

What are the characteristics of a true communist society? What are the characteristics of a fascist society? How is fascism different from communism?

A true communist society is characterized by the absence of social classes, common ownership of the means of production, and the idea of a stateless society where goods are distributed according to need. Fascism, in contrast, emphasizes strong centralized power, nationalism, and the primacy of the state over individual rights, often leading to authoritarian regimes. Key differences include communism's focus on class struggle and economic equality, whereas fascism promotes national unity and corporate power.

Which three nations were fascist? (Mussolini)

The three nations often associated with fascism during the early to mid-20th century are Italy under Benito Mussolini, Germany under Adolf Hitler, and Spain under Francisco Franco. Each exhibited authoritarian control, nationalist ideology, and the suppression of dissent.

Why was Fascism so attractive? What did it promise and how? What were its flaws?

Fascism was attractive due to its promises of national rejuvenation, economic recovery, and social unity in times of crisis. It appealed to people through strong leadership, a clear national identity, and the prioritization of the state over individual freedoms. However, its flaws included oppressive governance, violation of human rights, and the inability to deliver on economic promises, leading to widespread disillusionment.

How did Hitler rise to power?

WWI, Mein Kampf, Great Depression, Brown Shirts

• The rise of Adolf Hitler to power involved leveraging the political and economic instability in Germany following World War I. He used his book Mein Kampf to spread his ideology, capitalized on the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, and employed the paramilitary Brown Shirts to intimidate opponents and establish control over the political landscape.

What is lebensraum? How does it relate to the Austria/Sudetenland/Poland?

Lebensraum, meaning "living space" in German, was a key component of Nazi ideology advocating for the expansion of German territory to provide space for its growing population. It became a justification for Hitler's aggressive annexation of territories such as Austria, the Sudetenland, and Poland, as he aimed to unite all Germans and secure resources for the nation.

How did the League of Nations/collective security fail to stop Germany’s aggression?

The League of Nations/collective security failed to stop Germany's aggression due to its lack of enforcement power, unwillingness of member states to impose sanctions or military action, and a general policy of appeasement towards aggressive states. This allowed Germany to expand unchecked, undermining the League's credibility and effectiveness.

What is appeasement? What was its result? What were examples of appeasement (Munich Conference, Neville Chamberlain)

Appeasement is a diplomatic strategy aimed at avoiding conflict by making concessions to aggressor states. Its result was the further emboldenment of aggressors like Hitler, illustrated by events such as the Munich Conference where Britain and France conceded the Sudetenland to Germany.

Who signed the Non-Aggression Pact? Why was it signed?

The Non-Aggression Pact was signed by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1939 to guarantee that the two nations would not attack each other. It was strategically significant as it allowed Hitler to invade Poland without fear of Soviet intervention, effectively dividing Eastern Europe between the two powers.

When and why did WWII start in Europe?

World War II started in Europe on September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. This invasion was motivated by Hitler's desire for territorial expansion and the revision of the Versailles Treaty.

What was blitzkrieg and how was it used?

Blitzkrieg, meaning "lightning war," was a military strategy employed by Germany during WWII that combined rapid offensive tactics using coordinated attacks by air and ground forces. It aimed to encircle and incapacitate the enemy quickly, exemplified in the swift invasions of Poland and France.

Who made up the Axis powers? Who made up the Allied powers? Who were the main leaders? (Winston Churchill, FDR)

The Axis powers primarily consisted of Germany, Italy, and Japan, while the Allied powers included the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France. Key leaders included Adolf Hitler for Germany, Benito Mussolini for Italy, and Emperor Hirohito for Japan, with Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt representing the Allies.

What was the significance of the Battle of Britain, Operation Barbarossa, the Battle of Stalingrad, Pearl Harbor, and the D-Day invasion of Normandy?

The Battle of Britain marked the first major defeat of Hitler's military, forcing Germany to shift tactics. Operation Barbarossa was Germany's failed invasion of the Soviet Union, leading to significant losses. The Battle of Stalingrad marked a turning point in favor of the Allies, while Pearl Harbor prompted U.S. entry into the war. D-Day was the Allied invasion of Normandy, crucial for liberating Western Europe from Nazi control.

What weapons and technology were developed during WWII? What was their impact?

During WWII, weapons and technology such as tanks, aircraft, and radar were developed. These advancements significantly enhanced military capabilities, changed warfare tactics, and contributed to the rapid mobilization of forces.

What was the process of persecuting the Jews in Germany?

(Nuremberg Laws, ghetto, Final Solution, Wannsee Conference, Genocide, Death Camps)

In addition to the Jews, who were the other victims of the Holocaust? Why?

The other victims of the Holocaust included Roma (Gypsies), disabled individuals, Poles, Soviet POWs, Jehovah's Witnesses, and homosexuals. These groups were targeted due to Nazi ideology, which deemed them as racially inferior or socially undesirable.

How and when did the war in Europe end?

V-E day: Victory in Europe Day, celebrated on May 8, 1945, marked the formal acceptance of Nazi Germany's surrender by the Allies, leading to the end of the European conflict.

Who were The Big Three? What decisions did they make at Tehran, Potsdam, and Yalta?

The Big Three were Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin. They made crucial decisions regarding the post-war reorganization of Europe, including the division of Germany and the establishment of the United Nations.

Decisions they made at:

Tehran: At Tehran: agreement on the opening of a second front against Nazi Germany.

Potsdam: demands for Japan's unconditional surrender and discussions on Germany's post-war boundaries.

Yalta: plans for the division of Germany and reparations.