Pre-Columbian Civilizations, European Exploration, and Latin American Independence

What are Beringia and the 'Kelp Highway'?

Two theories of how the earliest humans arrived in the Americas: Beringia (land bridge from Asia to Alaska) and 'Kelp Highway' (coastal migration by boat).

What is a Mother Culture?

A civilization that influences the culture, religion, and social structures of later civilizations; the Olmec are considered the mother culture of Mesoamerica.

What are Tenochtitlan and Chinampas?

Tenochtitlan: Capital city of the Aztec Empire. Chinampas: Floating gardens used by the Aztecs for agriculture.

What are Terrace Farming and Quipu?

Terrace Farming: Agricultural technique of creating flat spaces on hillsides. Quipu: Inca system of knotted strings for record-keeping.

What are four general characteristics shared by pre-Columbian American civilizations?

1. Centralized social structures. 2. Monumental architecture. 3. Advanced agricultural techniques. 4. Polytheism and intertwined government and religion.

What were the primary motives for European voyages of exploration?

Gold (economic gain), Glory (prestige), and God (spreading Christianity).

Why were Europeans able to conquer the Aztec and Inca Empires?

Advanced technology, horses, germs (diseases), and strategic alliances with local groups.

Who were Francisco Pizarro and Atahualpa?

Francisco Pizarro: Spanish conquistador who conquered South America. Atahualpa: Last ruler of the Inca Empire, captured by Pizarro.

What was the Encomienda System?

A system where colonists were granted land and control over indigenous people for labor, which devolved into forced labor and abuse.

Who was Bartolomé de las Casas?

A Spanish friar who advocated for the rights of indigenous peoples and criticized the abuses of the encomienda system.

What was the Columbian Exchange?

The transfer of plants, animals, people, and ideas between the Old and New Worlds, causing demographic shifts.

Why did Europeans turn to the Atlantic Slave Trade?

Labor shortages from declining indigenous populations led to the enslavement of Africans for plantation work.

What was the Middle Passage?

The brutal journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic, characterized by horrific conditions and high mortality rates.

Who was Olaudah Equiano?

An African writer and abolitionist who documented the horrors of the Atlantic slave trade.

What is Nationalism?

Loyalty and devotion to a nation rather than a king or empire, originating in Europe during the French Revolution.

What was the Casta System?

A social hierarchy in Spanish colonial Latin America that determined status based on race.

What are the four main racial categories of the Casta System?

1. Peninsulares: European-born elites. 2. Criollos: American-born Europeans. 3. Mestizos/Mulattoes: Mixed heritage individuals. 4. Indígenas & Slaves: Native Americans and enslaved Africans.

Who were Simon Bolivar and José de San Martín?

Simon Bolivar: 'The Liberator' who led independence movements in South America. José de San Martín: General who liberated Argentina and Chile.

Who was Father Miguel Hidalgo?

A Mexican priest who initiated the Mexican War of Independence with his Grito de Dolores speech.

What followed in Latin America after independence?

Political instability, economic disruption, and civil wars due to the power vacuum left by Spanish removal.