Revolutions from c. 1750 to c. 1900

These flashcards cover key concepts from the lecture notes on revolutions, industrialization, and imperialism between 1750 and 1900.

What was the Enlightenment?

An intellectual movement using reason to challenge monarchy and church authority → inspired revolutions like the American and French.

What is empiricism?

Knowledge from observation and science, promoted by Francis Bacon.

What is deism?

Belief that God created natural laws but does not intervene.

What did John Locke argue?

Natural rights (life, liberty, property) and right to revolt → influenced the Declaration of Independence.

What did Thomas Hobbes argue?

Strong government needed to avoid chaos → supported absolute monarchy (Leviathan).

What did Jean-Jacques Rousseau argue?

Government should reflect the 'general will' → influenced democratic revolutions.

What did Montesquieu argue?

Separation of powers → influenced the U.S. Constitution.

How did Enlightenment ideas spread?

Printing, salons, and rising literacy spread ideas across Europe and colonies.

How did Enlightenment ideas challenge authority?

Challenged divine right → justified revolutions like France (1789).

What is nationalism?

Loyalty to shared identity → unified Germany and Italy.

What caused the American Revolution?

Enlightenment ideas + 'taxation without representation.'

What caused the French Revolution?

Inequality, Enlightenment ideas, economic crisis → Declaration of the Rights of Man.

Why was the Haitian Revolution unique?

First successful slave revolt → created independent Haiti.

Who was Toussaint L’Ouverture?

Leader who helped end slavery and establish Haitian independence.

Compare French vs Haitian Revolutions.

France → political rights; Haiti → abolition of slavery.

Why did Creoles lead Latin American revolutions?

Wanted political power → led by Simón Bolívar.

What was the significance of the Jamaica Letter?

Written by Simón Bolívar to justify independence using Enlightenment ideas.

How did nationalism unify states?

Unified Germany under Otto von Bismarck and Italy under Cavour.

How did nationalism divide empires?

Ethnic nationalism weakened the Ottoman Empire (Balkan independence movements).

Why did industrialization begin in Britain?

Coal/iron resources, capital from empire, and large labor supply.

How did the Agricultural Revolution lead to industrialization?

Increased food → population growth → urban workforce.

What was the factory system?

Centralized machine production (e.g., textile mills).

How did industrialization change global power?

Europe/US dominated manufacturing → decline of Indian industries.

First Industrial Revolution focus?

Textiles and steam power (James Watt).

Second Industrial Revolution focus?

Steel production using the Bessemer Process, plus electricity and chemicals.

How did steamships impact imperialism?

Faster trade and military movement → stronger empires.

How did the telegraph impact empires?

Instant communication → centralized imperial control.

What was the Meiji Restoration?

Rapid modernization → Japan became a global power.

What was the Self-Strengthening Movement?

Limited reform in China → failed to fully modernize.

Compare Meiji vs Self-Strengthening.

Japan fully modernized; China resisted deeper reform.

What is capitalism?

Private ownership and free markets (Adam Smith).

What is socialism?

Shared ownership (Robert Owen).

What is communism?

Classless society → proposed in Communist Manifesto.

Who wrote Communist Manifesto?

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

What is bourgeoisie?

Middle-class owners of production.

What is proletariat?

Working class selling labor.

How did industrialization create class conflict?

Poor conditions → labor unions and socialist movements.

What was the standard of living debate?

Middle class improved; workers lived in slums with cholera.

What were the Tanzimat Reforms?

Ottoman modernization to strengthen the empire.

What caused imperialism?

Need for raw materials and markets.

How did industrialization lead to imperialism?

Demand for resources → Scramble for Africa.

What is Social Darwinism?

Used to justify European superiority.

What happened at the Berlin Conference?

Europe divided Africa without African input.

Who controlled the Congo Free State?

King Leopold II → forced labor and mass deaths.

What was the significance of the Suez Canal?

Shortened trade route → strengthened imperial control.

What was the Sepoy Rebellion?

Indian uprising → British direct rule.

What was the Boxer Rebellion?

Remove foreign influence from China.

What was the Battle of Adwa?

Ethiopia defeated Italy → remained independent.

What was the Maji Maji Rebellion?

Sacred water would stop bullets.

What were examples of spiritual resistance?

Xhosa Cattle-Killing and the Ghost Dance.

What caused the Yaa Asantewaa War?

British demand for the Golden Stool.

What is an export economy?

Raw materials production (rubber in Congo, cotton in India).

What is monoculture?

Single crop farming → soil depletion and dependency.

How did imperialism create underdevelopment?

Colonies dependent on exports → limited industrial growth.

Why did migration increase?

Jobs and famine (Irish Potato Famine).

What is indentured servitude?

Contract labor replacing slavery.

How did abolition affect labor systems?

Led to Indian and Chinese indentured workers.

What is an ethnic enclave?

Cultural communities like Chinatowns.

What were effects of migration?

Cultural diffusion and discrimination (Chinese Exclusion Act and the White Australia Policy).

How did industrialization → imperialism → inequality?

Industrial demand drove imperialism → resource extraction → global inequality.

Compare responses to imperialism.

Japan (Meiji) modernized successfully; China struggled.

Give 2 examples of resistance.

Battle of Adwa and Maji Maji Rebellion.