Child Development Weeks 1–6 Review Flashcards

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering key terms and definitions from child development lectures, including research methodology, developmental theories, prenatal programming, and behavioral genetics.

Research Problem

A clearly defined, testable issue grounded in literature.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about relationships between variables.

Confounder

A variable associated with both the exposure (A) and outcome (B) that distorts their relationship.

Validity

Accuracy of a measure.

Reliability

Consistency of a measure.

Type I Error

False positive—rejecting a true null.

Type II Error

False negative—failing to reject a false null.

Effect Size

Magnitude of an effect, independent of sample size.

Power

Probability of detecting a true effect.

Sampling Bias

Systematic error from non‑representative sampling.

Generalisation

Extent to which findings apply to the wider population.

Scientific Theory

A set of concepts and propositions that organise, describe, and explain observed phenomena.

Classical Conditioning

Learning via association between stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

Learning via consequences including reinforcement and punishment.

Observational Learning

Acquiring behaviour by watching others.

Assimilation

Interpreting new information using existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing schemas to incorporate new information.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The range of tasks achievable with guidance but not alone.

Scaffolding

Structured support from a more capable partner to aid learning.

Sensitive Period

Optimal window for developing specific abilities when the brain is highly plastic and shaped by experience.

Microsystem

Immediate settings such as home and school that influence the child.

Mesosystem

Connections between different microsystems.

Exosystem

Indirect influences on the child, such as a parent’s workplace.

Macrosystem

The level of ecological systems theory covering cultural values and laws.

Continuity

Gradual, cumulative development.

Discontinuity

Stage‑like, qualitative shifts in development.

Experimental design

A method using random assignment and manipulation of an IV to test causal effects on a DV.

Quasi‑experiment

A research method using a natural event as "treatment" where the researcher cannot isolate specific causes.

Cross‑sectional study

A design that compares different ages at one time point to show age differences.

Longitudinal study

A design that follows the same individuals over time to track individual change.

Sequential design

A method that combines cross‑sectional and longitudinal designs to detect cohort effects.

Correlation

Statistical association between variables that does not imply causation.

Cohort effect

Differences in results due to the participants' birth year rather than development.

Risk factor

An individual, family, or contextual hazard that increases the likelihood of negative outcomes.

Protective factor

A variable that buffers or reduces the impact of risk.

Resilience

Positive adaptation despite adversity, built through interactions between biology and environment.

Mediator

A mechanism explaining how or why variable A leads to outcome B.

Moderator

A variable altering the strength or direction of the relationship between variable A and outcome B.

Homotypic continuity

The persistence of the same behaviour over time, such as delinquency leading to criminality.

Heterotypic continuity

The persistence of the same underlying trait with different behavioural expressions over time.

Equifinality

A developmental principle where many different paths lead to one outcome.

Multifinality

A developmental principle where one starting point leads to many different outcomes.

Barker Hypothesis (FOAD)

The premise that the early fetal environment programs long‑term disease risk.

Predictive Adaptive Response

Fetal adjustments made during development in anticipation of the postnatal environment.

Mismatch Hypothesis

The theory that disease risk increases when prenatal and postnatal environments differ.

Developmental Plasticity

The ability of the developing organism or fetus to alter development/physiology in response to environmental cues.

Epigenetics

Chemical modifications that switch genes on or off and alter gene expression without changing the DNA sequence.

HPA Axis

A neuroendocrine stress system involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex that regulates cortisol.

Toxic Stress

Prolonged activation of stress systems without adequate support, causing long‑term biological harm.

Low Birthweight

An indicator of an adverse intrauterine environment linked to later diseases like cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

Biological Embedding

The process by which early experiences become physiologically encoded via epigenetics, brain development, or immune functioning.

Internal validity

Confidence that the independent variable caused the dependent variable with alternative explanations ruled out.

External validity

The extent to which research findings generalise to broader populations or settings.

Case–control study

A design that compares people with vs without a condition using retrospective exposure assessment.

Grey matter

Neuronal cell bodies, synapses, and glia responsible for processing and cognition.

White matter

Myelinated axons that support communication and integration between brain regions.

Synaptogenesis

The formation of synaptic connections between neurons.

Myelination

The insulation of axons by oligodendrocytes to speed neural transmission, occurring from $37\,\text{weeks}$ gestation to adolescence.

Synaptic pruning

The elimination of unused synapses to refine networks, removing approximately $30,000$ synapses per second in adolescence.

Neurulation

The formation of the neural tube occurring at $3$-$4\,\text{weeks}$ gestation.

Neuronal migration

The movement of neurons to final cortical positions using radial glial fibres in an "inside-out" pattern.

Behavioural genetics

The study of how genetic and environmental influences shape behavior and individual differences.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual, consisting of the set of genes they carry.

Phenotype

Observable traits resulting from the interaction of genotype and environment.

Heritability

A statistic describing the proportion of trait variance in a population due to genetic differences.

Shared environment

Environmental factors that make siblings similar, such as socioeconomic status.

Non‑shared environment

Environmental factors that make siblings different, such as peer groups or differential treatment.

Mitosis

Cell division that results in identical daughter cells.

Meiosis

The process of gamete formation that produces genetically unique cells through crossing over and independent assortment.

Canalisation

Genetic constraints that limit developmental outcomes to a narrow range, such as babbling.

Range of reaction

The principle that a genotype sets limits for outcomes, while the environment determines where within that range a person falls.

Genotype-Environment Correlations (rGE)

The ways genes influence environments via passive (parents), evocative (responses from others), and active (seeking environments) processes.

G×E interaction

The process where genetic vulnerability interacts with environmental exposure to shape outcomes.

Polygenic risk score (PRS)

The total number of risk-related gene variants used to predict susceptibility to disorders.