What are the two religions born in the 5th century BCE? / Jainism and Buddhism What was the Vedic Era known for? / The beginning of Vedic religious beliefs and rituals recorded in the Vedas What were the Vedas? / Sacred Sanskrit scriptures and collections of hymns considered sources of knowledge Who were the Vedic people? / Pastoral people living in the Punjab region What materials did Vedic people mainly use? / Wood, clay, bamboo, and other temporary materials What was yajna? / A fire sacrifice ritual performed to please natural deities Did Vedic religion require temples or idols? / No, rituals were performed without temples or iconography What type of religion was early Vedic faith? / A naturalistic polytheistic religion Why were there many gods in Vedic religion? / Because each natural phenomenon had its own deity Who performed yajna rituals? / Priests called yajaka Who was the yajmana? / The patron or benefactor for whom the yajna was performed What was Varna? / The caste system in Vedic society What does Varna mean? / Color or kind Why is Vedic religion also called Brahmanism? / Because Brahmin priests held great importance What is Hinduism described as in the notes? / A broad term covering many religious systems, sects, and cults Which Veda is considered the oldest? / Rig Veda How were the Vedas passed down originally? / Through oral tradition What problem occurred because of oral transmission of the Vedas? / Chronological and dating errors What did the later Vedas mainly contain? / Sacrificial instructions, magic formulas, and spells What was the Shramanic tradition? / A movement opposing Vedic beliefs and Brahmanism Who were the Shramanas? / Ascetics and wanderers searching for ultimate truth What does Shramana mean? / Striving and working hard through austerity Why did Shramanas leave their homes? / To search for truth about life and the universe Which Shramanic traditions survived into modern times? / Buddhism and Jainism What does Jainism believe in? / Eternal souls and extreme austerities for liberation What does Buddhism believe in? / Impermanence, nonexistence of soul, and the middle path What is the Buddhist middle path? / A moderate path avoiding extremes to achieve Nirvana Why did Buddhism spread more widely than Jainism? / Buddhism became missionary and spread across Asia Why did Jainism remain limited mainly to India? / Because it lacked missionary expansion What political factor helped Buddhism rise? / Changing political conditions in South Asia What material change occurred during the Mauryan period? / A shift from perishable materials to stone and durable materials How did Alexander’s invasion affect South Asia? / It introduced foreign artistic and cultural influences Who founded the Maurya Empire? / Chandragupta Maurya Who was Seleucus Nicator? / A Greek general of Alexander the Great Who was Megasthenes? / A Greek ambassador to the Mauryan court Who expanded the Mauryan Empire into the Deccan? / Bindusara Who was Ashoka? / The grandson of Chandragupta Maurya and a major Buddhist ruler What event changed Ashoka’s attitude toward violence? / The War of Kalinga How did Ashoka react after the Kalinga War? / He felt deep regret for violence What did Ashoka reportedly build after embracing Buddhism? / Thousands of stupas What were Ashoka’s edicts? / Inscriptions spread across his empire promoting moral teachings What is the Lion Capital of Sarnath? / A famous Mauryan sculpture and symbol of authority Which foreign styles influenced Mauryan art? / Achaemenid Persian and Greek styles What is Mauryan polish? / A smooth, shiny finish used on Mauryan sculptures and pillars Why do some Mauryan sculptures appear highly developed? / Because Persian or Persian-trained craftsmen likely worked on them What medium remained continuously used in South Asia since Harappan times? / Terracotta What kinds of objects were commonly made from terracotta? / Sculpture, pottery, toys, and ornaments What are Yakshas and Yakshis? / Nature spirits associated with fertility and prosperity What issue exists with dating Mauryan sculptures? / Many sculptures are difficult to date accurately What do Mauryan male statues resemble stylistically? / Wood carving traditions What architectural tradition began with rock-cut caves? / The long tradition of rock-cut architecture in South Asia What inspired early rock-cut caves? / Persian cave traditions and wooden architecture What was special about the Sanchi Stupa during the Shunga period? / Decorative yakshi carvings and mature relief work were added What were yakshis associated with? / Fertility and nature worship What artistic style characterized Shunga reliefs? / Shallow relief inspired by wood carving What are Jataka tales? / Stories about the previous lives of the Buddha What symbols represented Buddha before his human image appeared? / Wheels, Bodhi trees, footprints, and empty thrones What does the term “Early Classic” describe? / The artistic maturity of Shunga and Andh

What are the two religions born in the 5th century BCE?

Jainism and Buddhism.

What was the Vedic Era known for?

The beginning of Vedic religious beliefs and rituals recorded in the Vedas.

What were the Vedas?

Sacred Sanskrit scriptures and collections of hymns considered sources of knowledge.

Who were the Vedic people?

Pastoral people living in the Punjab region.

What materials did Vedic people mainly use?

Wood, clay, bamboo, and other temporary materials.

What was yajna?

A fire sacrifice ritual performed to please natural deities.

Did Vedic religion require temples or idols?

No, rituals were performed without temples or iconography.

What type of religion was early Vedic faith?

A naturalistic polytheistic religion.

Why were there many gods in Vedic religion?

Because each natural phenomenon had its own deity.

Who performed yajna rituals?

Priests called yajaka.

Who was the yajmana?

The patron or benefactor for whom the yajna was performed.

What was Varna?

The caste system in Vedic society.

What does Varna mean?

Color or kind.

Why is Vedic religion also called Brahmanism?

Because Brahmin priests held great importance.

What is Hinduism described as in the notes?

A broad term covering many religious systems, sects, and cults.

Which Veda is considered the oldest?

Rig Veda.

How were the Vedas passed down originally?

Through oral tradition.

What problem occurred because of oral transmission of the Vedas?

Chronological and dating errors.

What did the later Vedas mainly contain?

Sacrificial instructions, magic formulas, and spells.

What was the Shramanic tradition?

A movement opposing Vedic beliefs and Brahmanism.

Who were the Shramanas?

Ascetics and wanderers searching for ultimate truth.

What does Shramana mean?

Striving and working hard through austerity.

Why did Shramanas leave their homes?

To search for truth about life and the universe.

Which Shramanic traditions survived into modern times?

Buddhism and Jainism.

What does Jainism believe in?

Eternal souls and extreme austerities for liberation.

What does Buddhism believe in?

Impermanence, nonexistence of soul, and the middle path.

What is the Buddhist middle path?

A moderate path avoiding extremes to achieve Nirvana.

Why did Buddhism spread more widely than Jainism?

Buddhism became missionary and spread across Asia.

Why did Jainism remain limited mainly to India?

Because it lacked missionary expansion.

What political factor helped Buddhism rise?

Changing political conditions in South Asia.

What material change occurred during the Mauryan period?

A shift from perishable materials to stone and durable materials.

How did Alexander’s invasion affect South Asia?

It introduced foreign artistic and cultural influences.

Who founded the Maurya Empire?

Chandragupta Maurya.

Who was Seleucus Nicator?

A Greek general of Alexander the Great.

Who was Megasthenes?

A Greek ambassador to the Mauryan court.

Who expanded the Mauryan Empire into the Deccan?

Bindusara.

Who was Ashoka?

The grandson of Chandragupta Maurya and a major Buddhist ruler.

What event changed Ashoka’s attitude toward violence?

The War of Kalinga.

How did Ashoka react after the Kalinga War?

He felt deep regret for violence.

What did Ashoka reportedly build after embracing Buddhism?

Thousands of stupas.

What were Ashoka’s edicts?

Inscriptions spread across his empire promoting moral teachings.

What is the Lion Capital of Sarnath?

A famous Mauryan sculpture and symbol of authority.

Which foreign styles influenced Mauryan art?

Achaemenid Persian and Greek styles.

What is Mauryan polish?

A smooth, shiny finish used on Mauryan sculptures and pillars.

Why do some Mauryan sculptures appear highly developed?

Because Persian or Persian-trained craftsmen likely worked on them.

What medium remained continuously used in South Asia since Harappan times?

Terracotta.

What kinds of objects were commonly made from terracotta?

Sculpture, pottery, toys, and ornaments.

What are Yakshas and Yakshis?

Nature spirits associated with fertility and prosperity.

What issue exists with dating Mauryan sculptures?

Many sculptures are difficult to date accurately.

What do Mauryan male statues resemble stylistically?

Wood carving traditions.

What architectural tradition began with rock-cut caves?

The long tradition of rock-cut architecture in South Asia.

What inspired early rock-cut caves?

Persian cave traditions and wooden architecture.

What was special about the Sanchi Stupa during the Shunga period?

Decorative yakshi carvings and mature relief work were added.

What were yakshis associated with?

Fertility and nature worship.

What artistic style characterized Shunga reliefs?

Shallow relief inspired by wood carving.

What are Jataka tales?

Stories about the previous lives of the Buddha.

What symbols represented Buddha before his human image appeared?

Wheels, Bodhi trees, footprints, and empty thrones.

What does the term 'Early Classic' describe?

The artistic maturity of Shunga and Andhra art.

What additions were made to Sanchi Stupa during the Andhra period?

Ornate toranas or gateways.

What is a torana?

A decorated gateway around a stupa.

What themes appeared on Sanchi toranas?

Buddha’s life, Jataka tales, animals, and symbols.

How did Andhra sculptures differ from earlier Shunga works?

They became more three-dimensional and elaborate.

What was the Amaravati school?

A major Buddhist art school of the Andhra period.

When did Buddha images first appear in Amaravati art?

Later than symbolic representations.

What story is shown in the Amaravati relief of the mad elephant?

Buddha calming the elephant Nalagiri.

Who were the Kushans?

A Central Asian clan that ruled parts of South Asia.

Which Kushan ruler strongly supported Buddhism?

Kanishka.

Why is Kanishka called the second Ashoka?

Because of his patronage of Buddhism.

What famous Buddhist relic is linked to Kanishka?

Kanishka’s reliquary casket.

How did Kushan art differ from Mauryan art?

It showed stronger Greek influence.

Why is Kanishka’s coin important?

It shows Buddha as a god for the first time.

What is a sanghati?

The monastic robe worn by Buddha.

Which two major Buddhist art schools flourished under the Kushans?

Gandhara and Mathura.

What influenced Gandhara art?

Greco-Roman and Hellenistic styles.

What influenced Mathura art?

Indigenous Indian artistic traditions.

How is Buddha shown in Gandhara art?

With detailed drapery and Greco-Roman features.

How is Buddha shown in Mathura art?

With emphasis on spiritual body and simplicity.

What is Abhaya mudra?

A gesture symbolizing fearlessness and protection.

What is a halo around Buddha’s head meant to show?

Spiritual radiance or enlightenment.

How did Gupta Buddha sculptures differ from earlier Mathura styles?

They used thin transparent drapery called 'wet drapery'.

What material became common in Gupta Buddha sculptures?

Fine muslin-like drapery in stone form.

Why is Gupta Buddhist art important?

It influenced Buddhist art across Asia.

What major religious change occurred during the Gupta period?

The revival of Puranic Hinduism.

Which Hindu gods became especially important in Gupta art?

Shiva and Vishnu.

What are the roles of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva?

Creator, preserver, and destroyer.

Why is the Gupta period important for Hindu architecture?

The first complete Hindu temples appeared.

How did portable Gupta Buddhas affect Asia?

Pilgrims carried them abroad, influencing Asian Buddhist art.

What is the significance of the Varaha sculpture at Eran?

It shows evidence of Hun authority in the region.