Comprehensive Review Flashcards: Historical Societies, Exploration, and Environmental Science

Flashcards covering Native American societies, European exploration and colonization (History Units 1-2), and comprehensive details from Environmental Science (APES Units 6-9) including energy, pollution, and climate change.

Maize

A crop that created entire cultures centered on sedimentary agriculture, leading to economic development, permanent settlements, and advanced irrigation.

Iroquois Confederacy

An alliance of multiple indigenous groups designed to maintain peace, facilitate trade, and maintain a shared council.

Great Plains/Basin Societies

Small, nomadic groups shaped by a hotter climate that forced them to move with the seasons.

95 Theses

A series of complaints written by Martin Luther regarding the corruption of the Roman Catholic Church, leading to the Protestant Reformation.

Nation State

A political entity that governs a single, unified people, which created competition for colonial positions in the New World.

Caravel

A boat equipped with a lateen sail that allowed new levels of speed for European exploration.

Joint Stock Companies

Limited liability businesses funded by multiple investors who shared the risk of exploration expeditions.

Columbian Exchange

The transfer of diseases, people, and goods between the Old and New World.

Requirimento

A legal document used by the Spanish to claim biblical authority given by the Pope to conquer indigenous lands.

Encomienda System

A coerced labor system where the Spanish crown granted land to conquistadors who forced indigenous people into mining and plantation agriculture in exchange for protection and Christianity.

Caste System (Spanish Americas)

A social hierarchy where social power was determined by the amount of Spanish or white blood an individual possessed.

Syncretism

The adaptation of different beliefs or views into a new, blended form, such as the indigenous adoption of Christianity.

Curse of Ham

A biblical justification used by Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda and others to argue that Africans were destined to be servants.

Hacienda

A Spanish labor system that tied laborers to the land through a debt-repayment system; they were technically not slaves.

Nonrenewable Resources

Energy sources that cannot be replenished in a human timeframe, including nuclear, coal, oil, and natural gas.

BTUs (British Thermal Units)

The amount of energy required to increase the temperature of $1 ext{ hinspace lb}$ of water by $1^ ext{ hinspace extdegree} F$.

EROI (Energy Return on Investment)

The ratio of energy obtained from a fuel divided by the energy invested to obtain that fuel.

Cogeneration

The process of using fuel to simultaneously generate electricity and produce heat, achieving efficiency up to $90 ext{ hinspace extpercnt}$.

Anthracite

A type of coal containing roughly $90 ext{ hinspace extpercnt}$ carbon with the highest heating value; most mines are located in northeastern Pennsylvania.

Bituminous

The most abundant type of coal, containing $45 ext{ hinspace extpercnt}$ to $85 ext{ hinspace extpercnt}$ carbon and used primarily to generate electricity.

Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking)

A process where fracking fluid is pumped at high pressure into wellbores to crack sediment and release trapped oil and gas.

Fission

The splitting of atoms (typically Uranium, Plutonium, or Thorium) that releases heat energy used to produce electricity.

Energy Efficiency

The practice of getting the same result while using a smaller amount of energy.

Clean Air Act of 1970

A law run by the EPA that set standards for carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead.

Photochemical Smog

A type of smog typically found in sunny climates like Los Angeles, containing $NO_x$, ozone, and hydrocarbons from gasoline combustion.

Thermal Inversion

An atmospheric condition where a warm layer of air covers a cold, dense layer below, trapping emissions and pollutants.

Particulate Matter (PM10)

Solid and liquid particles in the air between $2.5$ and $10 ext{ hinspace microns}$ in diameter, primarily posing an upper respiratory concern.

Asbestos

A fibrous material resistant to heat and chemicals that can become lodged in lung tissue, leading to scar tissue and immune system damage.

Radon Gas

A natural gas from the decay of radium that is the second leading cause of lung cancer.

Electrostatic Precipitator

A mechanical device that removes particulate matter from dirty air by giving particles a negative charge and attracting them to positive collection plates.

NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System)

A permit program created by the Clean Water Act that regulates point sources discharging pollutants into U.S. waters.

Oxygen Sag Curve

A plot of dissolved oxygen ($DO$) levels versus the distance from a source of nutrient pollution.

Endocrine Disruptors

Chemicals that interfere with the network of glands and organs, potentially causing developmental malformations or increased cancer risk.

Eutrophication

A process where excess nitrogen and phosphorus cause algae blooms, which then die and are consumed by bacteria that deplete the water of oxygen.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Chemical substances that remain in the environment for a long time, such as those banned or restricted by the Stockholm Convention of 2001.

CERCLA (Superfund Act)

A law that taxes the chemical and petroleum industries to fund the cleanup of abandoned hazardous waste sites.

Stratospheric Ozone

A layer found $45-60 ext{ hinspace km}$ above Earth that protects life by absorbing harmful UV radiation.

Montreal Protocol

An international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out ozone-depleting substances like CFCs.

Greenhouse Effect

The process where infrared radiation emitted from Earth is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere and radiated back to the surface.

Ocean Acidification

The gradual decrease of ocean pH caused by the uptake of atmospheric $CO_2$ which forms carbonic acid and reduces carbonate ions for calcifying organisms.