MANA Final Exam

Power

The ability to influence another person.

Influence

The process of affecting the thoughts, behavior, and feelings of another person.

Authority

The right to influence another person.

Interpersonal Forms of Power (French & Raven)

Reward Power- Control over rewards (pay, bonuses, promotions).

Works best when performance → reward link is clear.

Coercive Power- Ability to punish or create negative outcomes.

Forces compliance (fear-based; can harm morale).

Legitimate Power- Power from position/role (authority).

Works only if others accept the authority as valid.

Referent Power- Based on admiration or wanting to be like the person.

Comes from charisma, respect, or likability.

Expert Power- Based on knowledge or skills.

Effective when trusted, relevant, and clearly communicated.

Intergroup Sources of Power (How Groups Hold Power)

Groups gain power when other groups depend on them. Key sources include:

Control of Critical Resources

A group has power if it controls resources others need (e.g., budget, staff, information).

Control of Strategic Contingencies

Power comes from controlling activities others depend on to do their work.

This depends on 3 factors:

Ability to Cope with Uncertainty

Groups that help others handle uncertainty (e.g., legal, IT) gain power.

Centrality

Groups that are essential to the organization’s success (e.g., sales) have more power.

Nonsubstitutability

Groups that cannot be easily replaced (unique skills or expertise) are more powerful.

Key Idea:

Power = Dependency

The more others rely on a group, the more power that group has.

Role of Ethics in Using Power

Using power ethically means applying it fairly, responsibly, and with respect for employees. Managers should communicate clearly, consider employees’ concerns, and avoid abusing power (e.g., unfair punishment or self-serving actions).

Three Criteria for Ethical Use of Power

Utilitarian Outcomes (Greatest Good)

Does the action benefit the majority (inside and outside the organization)?

Ethical if it helps the organization—not just personal interests.

Individual Rights

Does the action respect people’s rights (e.g., privacy, fairness, due process)?

Unethical if it violates these rights.

Distributive Justice (Fairness)

Does the action treat everyone fairly and equitably?

Unethical if it favors some unfairly over others.

Key Idea:

For power to be ethical, it must meet all three criteria—good outcomes, respect for rights, and fairness.

What is Abusive Supervision?

Abusive supervision is a pattern of hostile verbal and nonverbal behavior by a manager toward employees (excluding physical contact).

It includes behaviors such as:

• Public ridicule or humiliation

• Angry outbursts

• Taking credit for employees’ work

• Blaming or scapegoating employees

• Harassment or verbal abuse

---

Key Points:

• Affects about 13% of U.S. workers

• Leads to negative outcomes like stress, emotional exhaustion, deviant behavior, absenteeism, and lower productivity

• Often linked to stress, perceived injustice, or poor self-control in supervisors

---

Simple Definition:

Abusive supervision = sustained mistreatment of employees by a leader through hostile behavior.

Kanter’s Symbols of Power (Summary) Intangible

Kanter identifies visible signs that someone has power in an organization, mostly based on their ability to get things done for others.

Key symbols of power:

Helping others out of trouble

Influencing promotions or placements

Going beyond budget limits without consequences

Securing higher raises for employees

Getting issues on meeting agendas

Access to important information early

Being consulted by top management

Key Idea:

Powerful people are those who can influence decisions, access resources, and help others succeed—showing their influence through action.

Korda’s Symbols of Power (Summary) Tangible

Korda highlights visible, status-based symbols of power—how power is shown through prestige and how others treat you.

Key symbols of power:

Office furnishings → Large desks, private offices, locked cabinets signal authority and importance

Time power → Control over time (busy schedule, making others wait, not needing a watch) shows power

Standing by → Others must always be available to you; ability to interrupt or control others’ time

Key Idea:

Power is reflected in status and control over others, especially the extent to which others adjust to your needs and schedule.

Kanter’s Symbols of Powerlessness (Summary)

Kanter identifies behaviors that signal a lack of power in managers at different levels.

Common symptoms of powerlessness:

Overly close supervision (micromanaging employees)

Rigid rule-following (inflexibility, no adaptation)

Doing tasks themselves instead of delegating or training others

Resisting change and protecting their own area (“turf”)

Blaming others or circumstances for problems (external attribution)

Top-down, punitive behavior (e.g., excessive budget cutting, punishment)

Key Idea:

Powerless managers tend to tighten control, avoid risk, and shift blame, which signals a lack of real influence or confidence.

Cialdini’s 6 Principles of Influence

Psychologist Robert Cialdini identified six key ways people are persuaded:

Reciprocity

People feel obligated to return favors.

→ If you give something, others are more likely to give back.

Commitment & Consistency

People want to stay consistent with their past actions or promises.

→ Small commitments can lead to bigger ones later.

Social Validation

People look to others to decide what’s correct behavior.

→ “If others are doing it, it must be right.”

Liking/Friendship

People are more easily influenced by those they like or relate to.

→ Similarity, compliments, and friendliness increase influence.

Authority

People tend to follow experts or credible figures.

→ Titles, experience, and knowledge matter.

Scarcity

People value things that are limited or rare.

→ “Limited time offer” increases desire.

Key Idea:

These principles work because they tap into natural human tendencies, making them powerful tools for persuasion in organizations and everyday life.

8 Influence Tactics (Summary)

Pressure

Uses threats, demands, or intimidation to force compliance

Upward Appeals

Involves support from higher management (“my boss supports this”)

Exchange

Offers rewards or favors in return for compliance (“you help me, I help you”)

Coalition

Gains support from others to persuade you (“everyone else agrees”)

Ingratiation

Uses flattery or friendliness to get you in a good mood before asking

Rational Persuasion

Uses logic, facts, and evidence to convince you

Inspirational Appeals

Appeals to emotions, values, or ideals to motivate you

Consultation

Involves you in decision-making to gain your support

Quick Tip:

Most effective: Rational persuasion

Least effective: Pressure

Leadership vs. Management (Kotter)

John Kotter explains that leadership and management are different but both are necessary:

Management (stability & control)

Focus: handling complexity and keeping things running smoothly

Main functions:

Planning & budgeting

Organizing & staffing

Controlling & problem-solving

Goal:

Reduce uncertainty and maintain stability in the organization

Leadership (change & direction)

Focus: creating change and guiding people

Main functions:

Setting direction (vision)

Aligning people through communication

Motivating and empowering employees

Goal:

Create change, innovation, and movement toward a vision

Key Difference:

Management = stability, order, control

Leadership = change, vision, inspiration

Role of Trait Theory in Describing Leaders

Early trait theories of leadership tried to explain leadership by identifying specific personal characteristics that distinguish leaders from non-leaders.

Researchers looked at:

Physical traits (height, appearance, age, energy)

Personality traits (confidence, dominance, adaptability, integrity, emotional control)

Abilities (intelligence, communication skills, social skills, cooperativeness)

Key Findings:

Some traits (like self-confidence, intelligence, and adaptability) were sometimes linked to leadership.

However, results were inconsistent and not reliable across studies.

No universal set of traits could clearly define all leaders.

Overall Conclusion:

Trait theory suggests leaders may have certain characteristics, but it has limited success because it cannot consistently predict who will become an effective leader.

The role of foundational behavioral research in the development of (behavioral) leadership theories

Lewin’s 3 Leadership Styles

Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified:

Autocratic leadership → Leader makes decisions, tightly controls work, little input from followers

Democratic leadership → Leader involves followers in decisions, encourages participation

Laissez-faire leadership → Leader takes a hands-off approach, gives minimal direction

Two Broad Dimensions of Day-to-Day Leadership Behaviors

From later behavioral research (Ohio State & Michigan studies):

Initiating Structure (task-focused)

→ Organizing work, defining roles, setting goals, focusing on task completion

Consideration (people-focused)

→ Building relationships, trust, respect, and supporting employee needs

Similarities Between the Two Approaches

Both Lewin’s styles and later behavioral research agree that leadership mainly revolves around two core dimensions:

Task-oriented behavior (structure, control, results, production focus)

People-oriented behavior (relationships, participation, employee focus)

In short:

Both frameworks show that effective leadership balances getting work done (tasks) and supporting people (relationships).

Followership (Definition)

Followership is the role of individuals who support, contribute to, and carry out the direction of a leader or organization. It involves actively participating in achieving goals rather than being passive recipients of instructions.

Key Idea:

Modern followership views followers as active contributors, not just passive subordinates.

Important Aspect: Self-Leadership

Followership can include self-leadership, where individuals:

Take responsibility for their own performance

Motivate and discipline themselves

Manage both enjoyable and less enjoyable tasks

Act with independence and accountability

Bottom Line:

Followership is the active, responsible role of contributing to organizational goals, often involving self-management and personal initiative.

Types of Followers

Followers can be grouped based on how active/passive they are and whether they think independently or uncritically.

---

1. Effective Followers

• Active + independent thinkers

• Take responsibility and manage themselves well

• Think critically but respectfully challenge leaders

• Committed, competent, and engaged

Best type of follower—adds real value to the organization

---

2. Yes People

• Active + uncritical thinkers

• Agree with everything the leader says

• Do not question ideas or decisions

• Support leaders enthusiastically, even when wrong

Dangerous because they may hide problems or risks

---

3. Alienated Followers

• Passive + independent thinkers

• Think critically but stay disengaged or negative

• Often frustrated or distanced from leadership

• May resist or undermine leadership indirectly

Can be disruptive due to cynicism

---

4. Sheep

• Passive + uncritical thinkers

• Do not think independently or take initiative

• Simply follow instructions without question

• Rely completely on the leader

Least engaged and least useful type of follower

---

Key Idea:

The most valuable followers are effective followers—they are active, responsible, and think critically while still supporting the organization.

Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Model

The Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) model explains that leaders do not treat all followers the same. Instead, leaders develop different quality relationships with different employees, and these relationships strongly affect outcomes like performance, satisfaction, and commitment.

---

What the LMX model says:

• Leadership is based on the quality of the relationship between leader and follower

• These relationships are not uniform—they vary from high-quality to low-quality

• Better relationships lead to better work outcomes (higher performance, satisfaction, and loyalty)

---

In-group vs Out-group In-group (high-quality LMX)

• Close, trusting relationship with the leader

• Receive more attention, support, and rewards

• More involved in decision-making and communication

• Given greater responsibility and autonomy

• Tend to have higher job satisfaction and commitment

---

Out-group (low-quality LMX)

• More formal, distant relationship with the leader

• Treated based on rules and job requirements only

• Receive fewer rewards and less attention

• Less trust and fewer opportunities

• Usually have lower satisfaction and engagement

---

Key Idea:

LMX shows that leadership is not one-size-fits-all—employees in the in-group benefit from stronger relationships with the leader, while out-group members have more limited, transactional interactions.

3 inspirational leadership styles

1. Transformational Leadership

Inspires followers to exceed normal expectations

Focuses on vision, change, and motivation

Key elements:

charisma

individualized consideration

inspirational motivation

intellectual stimulation

Focus: change, growth, and performance beyond expectations

2. Charismatic Leadership

Based on a leader’s personal charm and extraordinary influence

Followers are emotionally drawn to the leader and their vision

Can strongly motivate followers and build deep loyalty

Focus: personal magnetism and emotional influence

3. Authentic Leadership

Based on being genuine, self-aware, and true to one’s values

Leaders act with:

self-awareness

transparency

balanced decision-making

strong moral values

Builds trust, hope, optimism, and positive emotions in followers

Focus: honesty, ethics, and consistency between values and actions

Key Idea:

All three styles inspire followers, but in different ways:

Transformational → inspires through vision and change

Charismatic → inspires through personal influence

Authentic → inspires through trust, values, and integrity

Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict

Conflict in organizations can be either helpful or harmful, depending on how it affects work and relationships.

Functional Conflict (Positive)

Healthy, constructive disagreement

Focuses on ideas and solutions, not personal attacks

Encourages:

creativity and new ideas

learning and innovation

motivation and positive change

better understanding between people

Often cognitive conflict (differences in ideas or viewpoints)

Result: improves performance, morale, and innovation

Dysfunctional Conflict (Negative)

Unhealthy, destructive disagreement

Focuses on personal issues rather than work or ideas

Leads to:

stress and emotional harm

wasted time and energy

poor relationships and hostility

reduced productivity and teamwork

Often emotional conflict (anger, resentment, personal attacks)

Result: harms performance, morale, and organizational effectiveness

Key Difference:

Functional conflict = task-focused and constructive

Dysfunctional conflict = personal, emotional, and destructive

Big Idea:

Good managers try to encourage functional conflict (for creativity and improvement) and reduce dysfunctional conflict (because it damages the organization).

3 Types of Intrapersonal Conflict

Intrapersonal conflict happens within an individual. The three main types are:

---

1. Interrole Conflict

• Conflict between different roles a person has in life

• Example: work role vs. family role (work–home conflict)

Happens when demands from one role interfere with another.

---

2. Intrarole Conflict

• Conflict within the same role

• Happens when different people give conflicting expectations for how you should perform one role

• Example: a manager tells you to socialize less, while another tells you to be more collaborative

---

3. Person–Role Conflict

• Conflict between a job role and personal values

• Happens when job requirements clash with what you believe is right

• Example: being asked to pressure a customer to buy something they don’t need

---

Key Idea:

All three involve internal tension, but they differ based on whether the conflict comes from:

• multiple roles (interrole)

• conflicting expectations in one role (intrarole)

• or values vs. role demands (person–role)

Five Styles of Conflict Management

Conflict styles are based on two dimensions:

• Assertiveness = concern for your own needs

• Cooperativeness = concern for others’ needs

Each style reflects a different balance of these two dimensions.

---

1. Avoiding

• Low assertiveness, low cooperativeness

• You ignore or withdraw from the conflict

When to use:

• Issue is minor or not worth the effort

• People are angry and need time to cool down

• Conflict may resolve itself

---

2. Accommodating

• Low assertiveness, high cooperativeness

• You give in to the other person’s needs

When to use:

• You are wrong

• Relationship is more important than the issue

• You want goodwill or future reciprocity

---

3. Competing

• High assertiveness, low cooperativeness

• You push your own position at the expense of others

When to use:

• Emergency situations

• You are certain you are right

• Quick, decisive action is needed

---

4. Compromising

• Moderate assertiveness, moderate cooperativeness

• Both sides give up something to reach agreement

When to use:

• Time is limited

• Both parties have equal power

• Need a temporary or acceptable solution

---

5. Collaborating

• High assertiveness, high cooperativeness

• Both parties work together to find a win–win solution

When to use:

• Issue is important to both sides

• Need commitment from all parties

• Want the best long-term solution and improved relationships

Distributive vs. Integrative Negotiation

Distributive Bargaining (Win–Lose)

• Fixed pie (one side wins, one side loses)

• Focus: claiming value

• Short-term, competitive

Example: Salary negotiation

Related conflict style:

• Competing (high assertiveness, low cooperation)

---

Integrative Negotiation (Win–Win)

• Expands the pie (both sides can gain)

• Focus: creating value

• Long-term, collaborative

Example: Work-from-home agreements, partnerships

Related conflict style:

• Collaborating (high assertiveness, high cooperation)

---

Bargaining Zone Concepts

Bargaining Zone Concepts

Aspiration Range

• Best outcome you hope for (ideal goal)

---

Resistance Point (Reservation Point)

• Worst outcome you will accept before walking away

---

ZOPA (Zone of Possible Agreement)

• Overlap between both parties’ resistance points

• Where agreement is possible

No overlap = no deal possible

---

BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement)

• Best backup option if negotiation fails

• Strengthens your bargaining power

Better BATNA = stronger position

Negotiation Process (5 Steps)

1. PREPARE (Information)

Gather information about goals, interests, and alternatives

Identify BATNA, resistance points, and aspiration range

Develop strategy

Most important step (majority of time should be spent here)

2. INFORMATION EXCHANGE AND VALIDATION

Both parties share their positions and interests

Clarify needs, priorities, and expectations

Confirm understanding of each side

3. BARGAIN

Give-and-take between parties

Explore options and make concessions

Try to reach a mutually acceptable deal

4. CONCLUDE

Finalize agreement

Confirm terms and commitments

Ensure mutual understanding

5. EXECUTE

Implement the agreement

Follow through on commitments

Monitor outcomes

Key Takeaway

Negotiation success depends heavily on PREPARATION, which sets up everything that follows.

Research has shown that the recommended time allocation for negotiations

is:

 70% preparation

 20% information exchange at the negotiating table

 10% bargaining

 Preparation is more than half the battle!

Three Levels of Organizational Culture & Their Roles

Organizational culture exists at three levels, each playing a different role in shaping how people think, behave, and interact at work:

1. Artifacts (Visible Level)

What you can see and observe

Examples: office layout, dress code, logos, rituals, stories, behaviors

Role in the organization:

Communicates the organization’s culture outwardly

Shapes first impressions

Reinforces “how things are done here” in a visible way

2. Espoused Values (Stated Values)

The officially stated beliefs and principles

Examples: mission statements, core values like “innovation” or “teamwork”

Role in the organization:

Guides decision-making and behavior

Sets expectations for employees

Represents what the organization says it values

3. Basic Underlying Assumptions (Invisible Level)

Deep, unconscious beliefs taken for granted

Hardest level to see or change

Role in the organization:

Drives actual behavior in a powerful way

Shapes how employees think, feel, and interpret situations

Forms the core of organizational identity

Key Idea:

Artifacts = what you see

Values = what the organization says it believes

Assumptions = what people truly believe and act on automatically

Together, these three levels shape and sustain organizational culture.

Strong Organizational Culture (Definition)

A strong organizational culture is a culture where there is high agreement among employees on the organization’s core values, and those values are deeply held, widely shared, and strongly influence behavior.

Key Features:

Strong consensus on values across the organization

Values are deeply embedded and widely shared

Culture is clearly recognizable, even to outsiders

Resistant to change

Key Idea:

A strong culture means employees are unified by shared beliefs and behaviors, which can improve coordination, motivation, and performance—but it can also become rigid if the shared values lead the organization in the wrong direction.

Artifacts in Organizational Culture

Artifacts are the visible symbols of culture—what you can see, hear, or observe in an organization. They reflect deeper values.

---

1. Personal Enactment

• Behavior of employees, especially leaders, that reflects organizational values

• Leaders “model” culture through their actions

Example: A CEO staying fully present in meetings (no phone use) shows respect and engagement.

---

2. Ceremonies & Rites

• Planned, formal events that reinforce important values and achievements

• Used to recognize employees and strengthen culture

Example: Award ceremonies, training graduations, retirement dinners

---

3. Stories

• Narratives passed through the organization about people and events

• Teach lessons and reinforce what is valued

Example: Stories of employees going above and beyond for customers

---

4. Rituals

• Repeated daily or regular practices (“how we do things here”)

• Often informal but strongly shape behavior

Example: First-name culture, weekly team lunches, morning meetings

---

5. Symbols

• Physical objects or designs that represent the organization’s identity

• Communicate meaning without words

Example: Office layout (open space = collaboration), logos, dress code

Six Types of Organizational Rites

Rites are structured ceremonies that reinforce culture:

---

1. Rites of Passage

• Mark change in status or role
  Example: onboarding or retirement ceremonies

---

2. Rites of Enhancement

• Recognize and reward achievement
  Example: employee awards, sales recognition

---

3. Rites of Renewal

• Emphasize learning, change, and improvement
  Example: training programs, new initiative launches

---

4. Rites of Integration

• Build unity among employees or groups
  Example: company picnics, team-building events

---

5. Rites of Conflict Reduction

• Manage and resolve disagreements
  Example: grievance hearings, union negotiations

---

6. Rites of Degradation

• Publicly punish or remove someone who violated norms
  Example: firing a CEO for misconduct

---

Key Idea

Artifacts are the visible layer of culture, and rites are structured events that reinforce values, identity, and behavior in the organization.

Espoused values vs. enacted values

Espoused values are the values an organization says it believes in. They are formally stated and often appear in mission statements, codes of conduct, or public communications (for example, “we value integrity,” “we value inclusion,” etc.). These represent the organization’s ideal standards or what it claims should guide behavior.

Enacted values are the values an organization actually demonstrates through behavior. They are revealed in what employees and leaders do in practice, not what they say. These show the real culture of the organization.

Key difference:

Espoused values are stated ideals, while enacted values are lived realities. When both match, the organization is seen as consistent and credible. When they don’t match, employees and outsiders often see the organization as inconsistent or insincere.

Assumptions

Assumptions (in organizational culture) are the deeply held, taken-for-granted beliefs that guide how members of an organization think, perceive, and behave.

They represent the core of culture because they are:

• Fundamental and invisible (not usually written down or openly discussed)

• Unconscious (people often follow them without realizing it)

• Non-negotiable in practice (violating them feels “unthinkable” or unnatural within the organization)

• Guiding filters for how people interpret situations, decisions, and behavior

In short, assumptions are the deepest layer of culture—the underlying beliefs that shape values and actions without needing to be explicitly stated.

The four functions of organizational culture within an organization

Organizational culture serves four main functions, and each plays a different role in shaping how an organization operates and how employees experience work:

1. Creates identity and commitment
   Culture gives employees a sense of who they are as part of the organization. When people internalize shared values, they feel connected to the organization and their coworkers. This increases motivation, loyalty, and commitment because work feels meaningful rather than just transactional.

2. Provides meaning and interpretation
   Culture helps employees make sense of events in the organization. Changes, decisions, and symbols (like logos or rituals) are interpreted through the cultural lens. This reduces uncertainty by giving employees a shared way to understand what is happening and why it matters.

3. Reinforces organizational values
   Culture consistently supports and strengthens what the organization says it values. Through daily practices, leadership behavior, and shared expectations, employees are repeatedly reminded of what is important, which helps maintain consistency in behavior and decision-making.

4. Acts as a control system for behavior
   Culture guides and regulates behavior through informal norms. Instead of relying only on formal rules, employees learn “how things are done here.” These norms shape behavior such as teamwork, communication, and even emotional expression, helping ensure employees act in ways aligned with organizational goals.

Overall evaluation:
Together, these functions make culture a powerful force: it builds belonging, reduces ambiguity, reinforces priorities, and shapes behavior without constant managerial oversight.

The stages of organizational socialization

Organizational socialization happens in three stages, and at each stage culture is communicated in different ways:

1. Anticipatory socialization (before entry)

This stage includes everything a person learns before officially joining the organization—through job ads, interviews, websites, recruitment materials, and word-of-mouth.

• What happens: Newcomers form expectations about the job and organization.

• Key focus: Realism (how accurate expectations are) and congruence (fit between person and organization).

• How culture is communicated:
  Culture is communicated symbolically and formally through mission statements, values on websites, annual reports, and recruiting messages.

• Impact: Sets initial expectations about “how things are done here” and whether the person fits the organization’s values.

---

2. Encounter stage (first days to ~6–9 months)

This begins when the person starts the job and learns what the organization is really like.

• What happens: New employees learn tasks, clarify roles, and build workplace relationships.

• Key challenges:

  • Task demands (how to do the job)

  • Role demands (what is expected, role ambiguity/conflict)

  • Interpersonal demands (relationships, politics, leadership style)

• How culture is communicated:
  Culture is experienced directly through daily interactions—how managers lead, how coworkers behave, how stress is handled, and what is rewarded or punished.

• Impact: This is often where reality may match or clash with initial expectations.

---

3. Change and acquisition stage (adaptation and mastery)

In this stage, the newcomer becomes fully adjusted to the organization.

• What happens: Employees become comfortable, competent, and accepted as insiders.

• Key focus: Mastering tasks, understanding roles, and navigating relationships effectively.

• How culture is communicated:
  Culture is internalized through repeated behavior patterns, norms, and shared assumptions—employees now live the culture rather than just observe it.

• Impact: The individual becomes fully integrated and operates according to organizational norms without needing constant guidance.

---

Overall summary

Culture is communicated:

• Before entry: through formal messages and symbols (anticipatory stage)

• Early on the job: through real experiences and interactions (encounter stage)

• Over time: through internalization of norms and assumptions (change and acquisition stage)

Together, these stages show how organizations turn outsiders into fully functioning insiders by gradually transmitting culture.

The 4 steps of onboarding training for new employees

The four steps of onboarding training for new employees are:

1. Compliance
   Learning the organization’s basic rules, policies, and regulations to ensure legal and procedural understanding.

2. Clarification
   Understanding job duties, responsibilities, and performance expectations so the employee knows what success looks like.

3. Culture
   Learning the organization’s history, values, mission, traditions, and norms to understand “how things are done here.”

4. Connection
   Building relationships and networks with coworkers and managers to integrate socially and work effectively within the organization.

Occupational and organizational choice decisions

Occupational and organizational choice decisions refer to how individuals decide:

Which occupation to enter (for example, accounting, engineering, healthcare), and

Which organization(s) to work for within that occupation.

In the modern “new career” environment, people take more control of these decisions. They focus on building skills that are useful across multiple companies and may move between organizations or projects based on opportunity, fit, and growth rather than staying with one employer long-term.

Differences between the old and new career paradigms

Discrete exchange (new) vs. mutual loyalty (old):

In the new model, employment is a short-term, flexible exchange based on current market value—employees provide skills, and organizations provide rewards that can be renegotiated. In the old model, employees gave loyalty in exchange for long-term job security and stable rewards.

Occupational excellence vs. one-employer focus:

In the new model, individuals identify with their profession (e.g., “I am a marketer”) and build skills that transfer across organizations. In the old model, employees focused on one company and developed company-specific skills meant for internal career progression.

Organizational empowerment vs. top-down control:

In the new model, decision-making and responsibility are pushed down to employees and business units, encouraging innovation and initiative. In the old model, decisions were centralized at the top, and employee initiative was more limited.

Project allegiance vs. corporate allegiance:

In the new model, commitment is centered on completing projects successfully, even if teams change afterward. In the old model, loyalty was primarily to the organization and long-term work groups, sometimes even more than to project outcomes.

John Holland’s RIASEC model

John Holland’s RIASEC model describes six personality and career interest types. Each type reflects the kinds of work people are drawn to:

Realistic (R):

Prefers hands-on, practical, physical work involving tools, machines, or outdoor activities. These individuals tend to like working with things rather than people.

Investigative (I):

Prefers analytical, scientific, and problem-solving work. These individuals enjoy research, thinking, and working with ideas or data more than social interaction.

Artistic (A):

Prefers creative, unstructured work that allows self-expression. These individuals value originality and imagination and tend to dislike rigid rules.

Social (S):

Prefers helping, teaching, counseling, or service-oriented work. These individuals enjoy working closely with others and value interpersonal interaction.

Enterprising (E):

Prefers leadership, persuasion, and competitive roles. These individuals like influencing others, leading projects, and taking initiative in business or political settings.

Conventional (C):

Prefers structured, organized, detail-oriented work. These individuals are comfortable with rules, systems, data management, and routine tasks like accounting or administration.

The career stage model

The career stage model explains careers as a progression through four main stages that people typically move through during their working lives. Each stage reflects different goals, challenges, and attitudes toward work (timing can vary by person).

1. Establishment stage
This is the beginning of a career. Individuals focus on learning the job, gaining skills, and adjusting to the organization and occupation. The main goal is to become competent and “fit in.”

2. Advancement stage
This is a highly achievement-focused stage. Individuals work to increase their skills, take on more responsibility, and build career success and recognition. Growth and upward movement are key priorities.

3. Maintenance stage
At this stage, individuals try to maintain their performance and career position. They evaluate what they have achieved so far and focus on staying productive while possibly stabilizing or refining their career path.

4. Withdrawal stage
This final stage involves stepping back from active career development. Individuals may begin preparing for retirement or consider reducing work involvement or shifting careers.

Overall, the model shows how career goals and priorities shift over time—from learning and growth, to achievement, to stability, and finally to disengagement from work.

Career Paths & Advancement Stage (Simple Flashcards)

Career Paths & Advancement Stage (Simple Flashcards)

Q: What are career paths?

A: A series of jobs someone moves through during their career.

Q: What is a career ladder?

A: A step-by-step promotion path inside one company.

Q: What is a career lattice?

A: A flexible career path with sideways moves (not just promotions) to build skills.

Advancement Stage

Q: What is the advancement stage?

A: A career stage where people focus on improving skills and moving forward in their career.

Career Moves (Issue 1)

Q: What career moves can organizations use?

A:

Promotions (move up)

Lateral moves (same level, new job)

Job rotations (different departments)

Project assignments (temporary teams)

International jobs (work in other countries)

Lattice moves (mix of sideways + upward moves)

Big Idea

Q: Why do these moves matter?

A: They help employees gain experience, grow skills, and advance their careers.

Mentoring Functions (Simple Flashcards)

Q: What is a mentor?
A: Someone who helps a less experienced employee by giving guidance, support, and advice.

---

Career Functions (job + advancement support)

Q: What are the career functions of a mentor?
A:

• Sponsorship → helps you get promotions and opportunities

• Exposure/visibility → introduces you to important people

• Coaching → gives advice on job performance and career growth

• Protection → shields you from harmful situations or mistakes

---

Psychosocial Functions (personal + emotional support)

Q: What are the psychosocial functions of a mentor?
A:

• Role modeling → shows how to behave professionally

• Acceptance/confirmation → makes you feel valued and supported

• Counseling → helps with personal or work-related problems

• Friendship → builds a supportive personal relationship

---

Big Idea

Q: Why are mentors important?
A: They help employees get promoted, build skills, feel supported, and succeed faster in their careers.

Challenges of dual-career partnerships

Dual-career partnerships face several challenges:

Time pressure: balancing two full-time careers with family and personal life

Career priority decisions: deciding whose job takes precedence, especially with relocations or transfers

Childcare responsibilities: deciding who stays home or reduces work for children

Work–life balance strain: limited time for rest and leisure due to combined demands

Need for constant coordination: requires ongoing communication, planning, and compromise

Manage conflicts between their work and personal life

Organizations can help employees manage work–home conflict by offering policies and benefits that increase flexibility and reduce stress from competing demands.

Key ways include:

Flexible work schedules: letting employees choose when they work (e.g., flexible hours based on productivity).

Flextime: employees set their own daily start and end times.

Compressed workweeks: working longer days to get extra days off (e.g., 4-day or 9-day schedules).

Remote/hybrid work options: allowing employees to work from home or multiple locations.

Childcare support: on-site daycare or referral services to help with childcare needs.

Eldercare support: assistance for employees caring for aging family members (e.g., resources, leave, or counseling).

Caregiving support programs: paid leave, backup care, and employee resource groups for caregivers.

Flexibility and understanding from managers: handling family emergencies and conflicts case-by-case with support rather than strict rules.

Navigating the (two) challenges of the maintenance stage of the career stage model

Individuals in the maintenance stage face two main challenges: sustaining performance and becoming a mentor.

To sustain performance, individuals need to maintain their productivity and effectiveness even though career growth may slow down. This can involve continuing to develop skills, managing burnout through strategies like sabbaticals or breaks, and finding ways to stay engaged and motivated at work.

To become a mentor, experienced employees can shift part of their focus from personal advancement to supporting others. This means guiding less experienced colleagues by sharing knowledge, offering advice, and helping them develop professionally. This not only supports others’ careers but also helps the individual maintain a sense of purpose and contribution in their own career stage.

career plateau

A career plateau is when an employee reaches a point in their career where further upward promotion or advancement is unlikely. It often happens because there are few higher positions available or the organization has a flat structure. While some employees remain satisfied and continue performing well, others may feel stuck or less motivated due to limited growth opportunities.