AP Art History: Semester 2 Final

The Great Temple of Petra

Nabataean Ptolemaic and Roman

c. 400 BCE - 100 CE

Form: Cut rock

Function: A massive theater, a busy city center.

The Great Temple of Petra appears to have a center sanctuary room, or cella, giving insight into the worship rituals of the Nabataeans.

Buddha

Bamiyan, Afghanistan

Artist: Gandharan

c. 400-800 CE (destroyed in 2001)

Form: Cut rock with plaster and polychrome paint

Function: Part of Buddhist rituals and done primarily as a high relief.

The larger of the two, measuring 175 feet in height, was found on the west end of the valley. The Buddha on the east end was 120 feet tall. The sculptures were done primarily as a high relief and were still attached to the cliff wall in the back.

Jowo Rinpoche

Enshrined in the Jokhang Temple.

Lhasa, Tibet - Yarlung Dynasty

Believed to have been brought to Tibet in 641 CE

Form: Gilt metals with semiprecious stones, pearls and paint, surrounded by various offerings.

Function: A statue modeled after the founder of Buddisim, Siddhartha Gautama.

The "Jowo Rinpoche" is considered to be the most sacred of Buddhist statues in Tibet because it is believed to have been sculpted by the celestial architect Vishnukarma during the lifetime of Siddhartha Gautama.

Great Stupa at Sanchi

Madhya Pradesh, India

Buddhist

Maurya, late Sunga Dynasty

c. 300 BCE - 100 CE

Form: Stone masonry, sandstone on dome

Function: The foundation of worship, a mound-shaped shrine that often contains relics inside.

For Buddhists, the stupa provides the foundation for worship. Stupas are mound-shaped shrines that often contain relics inside.

Lakshmana Temple

Khajuraho, India

Hindu, Chandella Dynasty

c. 930-950 BCE

Form: Sandstone

Function: Dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu

Some of the images in the temple are more erotic in nature, which are meant not to shock, but rather to symbolize fertility and regeneration. Many of the figures are sculpted in "triple-bend" contrapposto, with offset hips, bent arms, and a tilted head.

Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja)

Hindu; India (Tamil Nadu)

Chola Dynasty

c. 11th century CE

Form: Cast bronze

Function: An example of the figurative representation of Hindu gods. Depicts Shiva's role as destroyer.

In Hinduism, there is a trinity of gods including Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer and transformer.

Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings

Artist = Bicitr

c. 1620 CE

Form: Watercolor, gold, and ink on paper

Function: Depicts Jahangir, an Emperor of the Mughal Dynasty, sitting on top of a hourglass

In this painting, Jahangir, an Emperor of the Mughal dynasty, sits on top of a platform that rests on an hourglass. The sands of time are running, and the Emperor Jahangir is being visited by a group of men.

Terracotta Warriors

From mausoleum of the first Qin emperor of China

Qin Dynasty

c. 221-209 BCE

Form: Painted terracotta

Function: Intended to guide Emperor Qin into afterlife, and protect him when there

The terracotta army was intended to guide Emperor Qin into the afterlife, and to protect him once he was there. Emperor Qin is remembered not only for being the first emperor, but for unifying the once separate Chinese states. He also established a form of government, economics, writing, and construction.

Funeral banner of Lady Dai (Xin Zhui)

Han Dynasty, China

c. 180 BCE

Form: Painted silk

Function: Believed to be used in a funerary procession. Used and made for Lady Dai

The painted silk banner was made for Lady Dai and was probably part of the funerary procession before it was placed over the inner coffin of her tomb. The banner has helped historians understand the importance of immortality and the afterlife for the Han Dynasty, as well as the cosmological influence that was mixed with Chinese traditional imagery and Daoist symbolism.

Longman Caves

Luoyang, China

Tang Dynasty

493-1127 CE

Form: Limestone

Function: A series of sculptures and caves. Built from the emperor's son to honor him

The Central Binyang Cave was commissioned by the Emperor's son to honor his father. The cave is cut deep into the limestone cliff side and contains several sculptures. The influence of Buddhism to ancient China is evident in the sculptures at the Longmen Caves in Luoyang, China.

Travelers Among Mountains and Streams

Fan Kuan

c. 1000 CE

Form: Ink and color on silk

Function: A personal expression artwork, a complex landscape scene

Kuan created a complex landscape scene with ink on a silk scroll that is almost seven feet in length. The mountains in the background dominate the scene. Kaun rejected traditional court art, and focused on creating works not to sell, but rather for personal expression. Artists moved by these motives were called Literati.

The David Vases

Yuan Dynasty, China

1351 CE

Form: White porcelain with cobalt-blue underglaze

Function: An exquisite example of the porcelain arts, made as a offering for a Taoist temple

The vases, which were made as an offering for a Taoist temple, are done in a blue white technique. One of the last great dynasties in Ancient China was the Ming Dynasty. The Ming are known for a highly successful reign over China from about 1368 to 1644.

Forbidden City

Beijing, China

Ming Dynasty,

15th century CE and later

Form: Stone masonry, marble, brick, wood, and ceramic tile

Function: One of the largest architectural complexes in existence. Served as the home for the Emperors for the past 20-emperors.

The Forbidden City includes over 90 buildings with over 9,000 rooms. Mostly decorated with red walls and yellow roofs. The complex is surrounded by a 30 foot high wall. Today, the Forbidden City is a museum and historical site. It allows visitors to view previously unseen spaces that were reserved just for the royal court.

Chairman Mao en Route to Anyuan

Unknown Artist, but based on a oil painting by Liu Chunhua

c. 1969 CE

Form: Color lithograph

Function: Mao is shown in a highly idealized, and glorified way.

In "Chairman Mao en Route to Anyuan", Mao is shown in a highly idealized, and glorified way. Mao is on his way to help lead a nonviolent strike by coal miners in the Anyuan province. One of the more well-known leaders in Chinese history was Chairman Mao Zedong. Mao was a Chinese communist revolutionary leader and founded the People's Republic of China in 1949

Ryoan-Ji

Kyoto, Japan

Muromachi Period, Japan

c. 1480 CE

Form: Rock garden (Current design most likely dates to the 18th century)

Function: Shows the influence of the Zen school of Buddhism

The dry garden is an example of a uniquely Zen space. The gardens are viewed from a veranda of a neighboring building and cannot be seen all at once from any one fixed spot. The Ryoan-ji site is also home to a large wet garden. The large pond is surrounded by carefully placed plants and trees. It contains two small islands for shrines that are accessible by a walking bridge.

Night Attack on the Sanjo Palace

Kamakura Period, Japan

c. 1250-1300 CE

Form: Handscroll (ink and color on paper)

Function: Tells the story of a deadly armed coup that occurred in 1159.

"Night Attack" is an ink and color painting on a long hand scroll measuring over 25 feet in length. The scroll is meant to be read from right to left in smaller segments. "Night Attack on the Sanjo Palace" tells the story with immense detail and emotion. The crowded mass of figures and frenetic energy of the scene is enhanced by the swift brush strokes and crowded spaces. Japanese arts include a long history of painting.

White and Red Plum Blossoms

Ogata Korin

c. 1710-1716 CE

Form: Ink, watercolor, and gold leaf on paper

Function: Depicts white plum blossoms, red plum blossoms, and a meandering stream

The two screens would have been positioned separately but close enough for the viewer to note the continuation in design. The left panels include white plum blossoms, while the right panels showcase the red plum blossoms. Between the two trees is a meandering stream done with curvilinear lines to mimic the movement in water.

Under the Wave off Kanagawa (Kanagawa oki nami ura)

Also known as the Great Wave, from the series Thirty-six views of Mount Fuji

Katsushika Hokusai

1830-1833 CE

Form: Polychrome woodblock print ink and color on paper

Function: Depicts three fishing boats struggling to make their way back home from the Great Wave

A woodblock print done in his Ukiyo-e style, and is one of his most well-known artworks. Hokusai created a series of work, called "Thirty-Six views of Mount Fuji" with the intention of selling copies of the prints to tourists. The artwork of Shiko Hokusai demonstrates the Ukiyo-e style of Japanese art. Ukiyo-e means "pictures of a floating world".

Todai-ji

Nara, Japan

Various artists, including sculptors Unkei and Keikei, as well as the Kei School

743 CE (rebuilt in c. 1770)

Form: Bronze and Wood (sculpture), and Wood with Ceramic-tile roofing (architecture)

Function: The Great Buddha Hall. Served as a worship place

Inside the hall sits a colossal statue of the Vairocana Buddha. The statue is almost 165 feet tall and is made from a copper casting. The right hand is in the mudra sign, meaning "do not fear", while the left hand is outstretched with the palm up, as if to say, "welcome". Buddha's priest, Shunjobo Chogen, was selected to lead the project. After the temple was burned, the Japanese aristocracy and warrior elite donated money to have the facility rebuilt.

Gold and jade crown

Three Kingdoms Period

Silla Kingdom, Korea

Fifth to sixth century CE

Form: Metalwork

Function: Demonstrates the relationship of trade and conquest

This gold and jade crown was found in a royal tomb. The geometric lines and antler-like forms are similar to those found in the Shaman rituals. The influence of trade and conquest help spread culture beyond the confines of regional and geographic borders. This crown from the Silla Kingdom in Korea demonstrates this relationship

Portrait of Sin Sukju (1417-1475)

Imperial Bureau of Painting

c. 15th century CE

Form: Hanging scroll (ink and color on silk)

Function: Honors Sin Sukju for his service to the king

The "Portrait of Sin Sukju" is a silk scroll painting done in ink and color. Artists in Korea's Royal Bureau of Painting created merit paintings to honor those who had dedicated themselves to the service of the king. Sin Sukju was a revered scholar, soldier and prime minister who served under two kings during the Joseon Dynasty.

Borobudur Temple

Central Java, Indonesia

Sailendra Dynasty

c. 750-842 BCE

Form: Volcanic-stone masonry

Function: A colossal Buddhist monument, filled with life-sized Buddha statues, relief structures, and stupas.

The plan of Borobudur is aligned similar to a mandala, a spiritual symbol in Buddhism that represents the universe. The overall plan of the temple is made of five terraced levels, and it is constructed from an interlocking system of volcanic stone. Borobudur is a place of pilgrimage and is considered to be one of the world's greatest monuments to Buddha.

Angkor, the temple of Angkor Wat

The city of Angkor Thom

Cambodia

Hindu, Angkor Dynasty

c. 800-1400 CE

Form: Stone masonry and sandstone

Function: A temple complex with both Hindu and Buddhist elements, believed to be dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu.

The sight on Angkor Thom is oriented on a east -west plan. The main structure of the temple of Angkor Wat is built from sandstone and is constructed in the temple mountain style. Angkor Wat is a temple complex with both Hindu and Buddhist elements. Located in Cambodia in the city of Angkor. The temple of Angkor Wat was originally built by the Khmer civilization between 800 and 1400 CE. The temple is believed to be dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu.

Lanzon Stela

Northern highlands, Peru

Chavin

900-200 BCE

Form: Granite

Function: Spanish for spear or blade. Shaped as a primary digging tool used by area farmers.

Standing at about 15 feet in height, the Lanzón is carved with a half human, half animal-like figure. The powerful image has a human-like body with snakes on the eyebrows, large fangs, and sharp talons for nails on the hands and feet. One hand is pointing up while the other is pointing down. Perhaps a symbol of the heavens and Earth. Chavín de Huántar is an ancient site that was once a bustling religious capital for the Chavín civilization

Chavin Nose Ornament

Northern highlands, Peru

Chavin

900-200 BCE

Form: Hammered gold alloy

Function: Worn during sacred ceremonies by the Chavin peoples.

he fierce fangs and sharp talons convey a sense of power. The Chavín people seem to have a deep respect and reverence for the jaguar as well as iconography of serpents. This serpent shaped nose ornament would have been worn during sacred ceremonies by the Chavín peoples. Nose rings were made of hammered gold and were believed to transform the wearer into a supernatural being during ceremonial events.

Lintel 25, Yaxchilan

Chipas, Mexico

Maya

725 CE

Form: Limestone (architectural complex)

"Lintel 25" shows Lady Xoc experiencing the after effects of the bloodletting ceremonies. Bloodletting rituals often elicited hallucinations, and Lady Xoc is experiencing a vision of a serpent with a figure appearing from its mouth. Lady Xoc is holding a bowl in her hand with a blood letting ceremonial item, such as a blood stained paper. The inscription on this lentil is written backwards, and cites the event as the date her husband Shield Jaguar took the throne.

Structure 33, Yaxchilan

Chipas, Mexico

Maya

725 CE

Form: Limestone (architectural complex)

Function: A flourishing trade shop and home to a collection of stone-built structures

Includes three main door ways and an iconic roof comb style top, it is level to the facade. The structure is rather narrow, but the tall exterior would have made quite an impression as it could be seen from the river. Like other structures on the complex, relief lintels can be found in "Structure 33" commemorating its patron Bird Jaguar the fourth.

Structure 40, Yaxchilan

Chipas, Mexico

Maya

725 CE

Form: Limestone (architectural complex)

Believed to have been commissioned by Bird Jaguar the fourth. There are relief sculptures on the lentils depicting him standing over captives. "Structure 33", 40 also has three doorways that lead into a single room, as well as a perforated roof comb.

Templo Mayor (Main Temple)

Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City, Mexico)

Mexica (Aztec)

1375-1520 CE

Form: Stone (temple),

Function: Part of the main city for the Aztec people. Served as the main temple.

The temple was structured with a pyramid base and two separate temples on top. There were also two separate stairways leading to each temple. The North Temple was dedicated to the Aztec deity Tlaloc, the god of water and rain. The South Temple was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli who was the god of war, fire, and the sun. The interior of the Huitzilopochtli temple contained a sacrificial stone which indicates how the Aztecs honored the god.

Coyolxauhqui Stone

Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City, Mexico)

Mexica (Aztec)

1375-1520 CE

Form: Volcanic stone

The relief sculpture that the workers found is a carved, volcanic stone disk that is about 11 feet in diameter, and depicts female deity Coyolxauhqui and her dismembered body.

Olmec-style mask

Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City, Mexico)

Mexica (Aztec)

1375-1520 CE

Form: Jadeite

Carved from a green stone, similar to jadeite, the mask is only about the size of your palm. It is curved with the typical Olmec features of heavy lilted eyes, a frown on the mouth and almost baby-like face

calendar stone. Temolo Mayor.

Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City, Mexico)

Mexica (Aztec)

1375-1520 CE

Form: Basalt

The calendar stone, or sunstone, is a relief cut, circular basalt stone that would have been brightly painted as well. The center of the stone is a face with a blade-like dagger for a tongue and claw hands. The Sun Stone was an altar-like structure for ritual ceremonies, such as sacrifices.

Ruler's Feather Headdress (probably of Moctezuma II)

Mexica (Aztec)

1428-1520 CE

Form: Feathers (quetzal and cotinga) as well as Gold

Function: Believed to have belonged to the Aztec leader Moctezuma II, used as an offering.

The headdress is made primarily of gold and the feathers of the ketsal and cotinga birds. The male ketsals grow long brilliant green tail feathers, usually just two at a time. Over 400 bird feathers were used to create such an elaborate headdress. The headdress was collected by Spanish Conquistador Hernán Cortés. He sent it back to Spain as a gift to King Charles the fifth after he conquered the Aztecs in 1521.

City of Cusco, including Qorikancha (Inka Main Temple)

Santo Domingo (Spanish colonial convent)

Central highlands, Peru

Inka

c. 1440 CE (convent) - Added 1550-1650 CE

Form: Andesite

Function: Built in honor of the sun god, Inti, and was also known as the "Golden House"

The walls of Qorikancha were built with the Ashlar masonry style and taper upward. Doorways and windows are done in a distinctive Inkan trapezoid shape. The walls of Qorikancha were once covered in gold sheets to reflect the sun and further honor the sun god. The Inka empire was the largest in pre-Columbian Americas. Inka architecture is impressive, not just in its scope, but also for the skill their builders displayed in dealing with difficult terrain and land that was often considered to be inhospitable.

Maize Cobs

Inka

c. 1440-1533 CE

Form: Steel metal and repousse Metal alloys

Function: Depicts the primary food source for the Inka, and was created to help ensure a successful harvest

Spanish conquistadors also removed the gold miniatures from the interior courtyard, such as this gold and silver maize cob. Maize was the primary food source for the Inka. When the Spanish Conquistadors arrived at Qorikancha in 1532, they took the gold adornments from the temple and later converted the structure into what is now the convent of Santo Domingo.

City of Machu Picchu

Central highlands, Peru

Inka

c. 1450-1540 CE

Form: Granite (architectural complex)

Function: Built as a royal retreat for the first Inka Emperor

Sitting at about 7,000 feet above sea level, and in an isolated mountain area. The complex is made up of over 200 buildings, including houses, temples, baths, and terraced land for agriculture. There was even an observatory structure with an upper deck for viewing, and a covered structure below. The complex originally was built as a royal retreat for the first Inka Emperor. It would've been a place for him to visit with his family and to hold ceremonial events.

All-T'oqapu Tunic

Inka

1450-1540 CE

Form: Camelid fiber and cotton

Function: Worn by women who were considered to be sacred for their weaving techniques

Tunics such as this one were most likely made by women who were considered to be sacred for their weaving abilities. Especially intricate tunic designs would indicate wealth and status. And a tunic such as this may have been worn by an Inkan ruler. Artworks and architecture from the Inka empire gave a glimpse into a culture that left no written history

Mesa Verde, cliff dwellings

Montezuma County, Colorado

Ancestral Puebloan (Anasazi)

450-1300 CE

Form: Sandstone

Function: Used as homes for the Anasazi people

The site contains about 150 rooms built of stone and mortar, a departure from the more traditional adobe structures. Families typically would have one room each, and these rooms were organized around a kiva, or circular room. Kivas were ceremonial rooms with a central fire pit, complete with ventilation shafts. The Anasazi people, known today as the Pueblo, built homes into the cliff sides in the Mesa Verde region of southwestern Colorado.

Great Serpent Mound

Adams County, southern Ohio

Misssissippian (Eastern Woodlands)

c. 1070 CE

Form: Earthwork/effigy mound

Function: An earthwork that depicts a snake, common in the Mississippian cultures

Effigy mounds were common in the Mississippian cultures, a group of early Native American peoples. Effigy mounds are earthworks created to look like humans or animals. The rattlesnake was an important animal to Mississippian culture. Native tribes viewed this snake as a mythical creature with great powers. Other scholars believe the mound was built as an act of spiritual worship or devotion, or as a place to worship.

Bandolier bag

Lenape (Delaware tribe, Eastern Woodlands)

c. 1850 CE

Form: Beadwork on leather

Function: Worn across your chest with a strap, seen as a sign of prestige.

A bandolier bag is worn with a strap across the body with the bag at the hip. They were typically made from leather, cotton, and wool. They were decorated with beads. This is a bandolier bag, attributed to the Lenape peoples from the Eastern Delaware region. Women typically made the bags, but it was the men in the tribe that most often wore them.

Transformation Mask (open and closed view)

Kwakwaka'wakw, Northern coast of Canada

Late 19th century CE

Form: Wood, paint, and string

Function: Would have been worn at a potlatch gathering, or a feast.

The masks were carved from wood and painted in bright colors and with geometric patterns. They may also have included fiber and strings, and were carved to represent an animal when closed. Ravens, eagles, wolves, and whales were common themes, and were symbolically connected to the clan of the wearer. The Kwakwaka'wakw are an indigenous tribe from northwest Canada known for their totem sculptures and transformation masks. A potlatch gathering involves a feast where tribe members would come together to celebrate a birth or wedding, or when there was a death in the family.

Painted elk hide

Attributed to Cotsiogo (Cadzi Cody)

Eastern Shoshone, Wind River Reservation, Wyoming

c. 1890-1900 CE

Form: Painted elk hide

Function: A direct reflection of the tribe's transition from living free to restrictions on the reservation

He included images of what could be the sacred Sun Dance, a ritual that was outlawed by the United States government at the time the painting was done. Cotsiogo was a member of the Eastern Shoshone tribe. His tribe was displaced from their native homelands and placed on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. The hide painting is a direct reflection of the tribe's transition from living free on the plains to the restrictions of the reservation.

Black-on-Black ceramic vessel

Maria and Julian Martinez

Tewa, Puebloan, San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico

c. mid-20th century CE

Form: Blackware ceramic

Function: Depicts the Puebloan pottery technique

Maria made the pottery and developed a wide variety of shapes in her work. A skilled ceramist, she learned the Puebloan technique from her family and neighbors. Her husband, Julian, painted the pottery using techniques and designs that were found on artifacts pulled from a Pueblo excavation site.

Wall Plaque

From Oba's palace

Edo peoples, Benin (Nigeria)

16th century CE

Form: Cast brass

Function: Depicts the king (Oba), who was considered the direct descendant of the founder of the Benin Dynasty

They are done in a distinct style with a great attention to the details of the clothing and regalia, such as the neck rings of the Oba. The body however is not done in a naturalistic way. The Oba is also shown much larger than his attendants or any other figures on the plaques. This technique is called hierarchy of scale, where the rank of the individual is shown by the size of the figures. The Oba is the king, considered to be a direct descendant of the founder of the Benin dynasty.

Ndop (portrait figure) of King Mishe miShyaang maMbul

Kuba people (Democratic Republic on the Congo)

c. 1760-1780 CE

Form: Wood

Function: Help to create a lasting memory of the King's reign

The immensely popular Kuba King Mishe miShyaang maMbul commissioned this ndop during his reign. An ndop is an idealized portrait statue. The ndop are idealized and therefore are not realistic portraits of what the king's actually look like. They also include symbols that denote the king's rank and help identify the patron. Much of African sculpture maintains this portability. In a society with a mostly oral tradition, the ndop helped create a lasting memory of the King's reign.

Power Figure

(Nkisi n'kondi)

Kongo peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo)

c. late 19th century CE

Form: Wood and metal

Function: Believed to have the spirits of the ancestors in them. Could be summoned for good fortunes and blessings.

The spirits of the ancestors could be summoned to bring good fortune and blessings or to bring harm to other people. If figures were carved from wood, and often have nails embedded in them, and would sometimes have medicine stored inside. The insertion of nails or blades were believed to activate the figures. Nkisi n'kondi statues highlight the link between shamanism and the arts in the African tradition.

Reliquary Figure (byeri)

Fang people (southern Cameroon)

c. 19th to 20th century CE

Form: Wood

Function: Placed on top of containers that the Fang used to store skulls, bones, and other family relics to protect them

The byeri or "Reliquary Guardian Figures", were carved out of wood and had a strong muscular build with a calm and tranquil pose and expressionless face. They often had a child-like face and an adult body perhaps to represent the cycle of life. The byeri would be placed on top of the containers that the Fang used to store the skulls, bones and other important family relics. Their function was to protect the relics from any form of harm. This also included protection from the gaze of women or uninitiated men.

Ikenga (shrine figure)

Igbo people (Nigeria)

c. 19th to 20th century CE

Form: Wood

Function: Personal shrines honoring an individual man

Each Ikenga is a personal tribute to its patron. And often are represented, holding a weapon in its right hand. In the left hand, the Ikenga might hold a tool or other more utilitarian object. The Ikenga typically celebrates masculinity, in tales of the patron or owner's rank, power and achievements. Once blessed and consecrated the Ikenga stayed in a shrine in the owner's home. When the owner of the Ikenga died, the Ikenga was typically destroyed.

Sika dwa ko (Golden Stool)

Ashanti peoples (south central Ghana)

c. 1700 CE

Form: Gold over wood and cast-gold attachments

Function: The spirit and soul of the body is contained in this artifact

This stool is believed to have fallen from the heavens, landing on the lap of the first Ashanti king. The stool itself is made of gold inlaid over wood. It has two bells attached to ring in warning of impending danger. There was a representation of four golden enemies to serve as a reminder of those the Ashanti have defeated. The stool is not meant to be sat on. A war once broke out when a British governor demanded to sit on it and the Ashanti refused. The golden stool is never allowed to touch the ground. It is carried to the king and then placed upon another seat to keep it near the king.

Lukasa (memory board)

Mbudye Society, Luba People (Democratic Republic on the Congo)

c. 19th to 20th century CE

Form: Wood, beads, and metal

Function: Serves as a set of symbols in lieu of a written tradition

Each Lukasa is unique and is made of wood, shells, metal and beads. They help the reader recall and recite the story of heroes, kingship, migrations and genealogy. Memory boards are controlled and read by members of the Mbudye society. The reader would hold the Lukasa in one hand, while using the free hand to trace the embedded objects. As each object is traced with a finger, the reader tells that part of the story. The beads and objects act as mnemonic devices or memory triggers

Female (Pwo) Mask

Chokwe People (Democratic Republic on the Congo)

Late 19th to early 20th century CE

Form: Wood, fiber, pigment, and metal

Function: Worn in dance performances honoring the women and female ancestors of the tribe

The wooden Pwo masks have similar characteristics, enlarged eye sockets with mostly closed eyes, a slender nose, highly balanced features, and braided fiber hair. While the mask is of a woman it is the men that wear the mask and dance in the ritual. In the dance a man would dress up as and move like a woman. The Chokwe were a matriarchal society, meaning the women held the power. The Pwo masks were meant to honor their female ancestors.

Bundu Mask

Sande Society, Mende peoples (West African forests of Sierra Leone and Liberia)

19th and 20th century CE

Form: Wood, fiber, pigment, and metal

Function: Worn by the Sande Society, would be worn by the women as part of the initiation into the society

The masks are designed to remind girls what traits they should adopt going into womanhood. The masks have elaborate hairstyles, small slit eyes that are looking down slightly. The closed, respectful mouth is meant to remind the girls not to gossip, and the small ears, so as not to get pulled into conversations. The features were considered to be the idealized aspects of a woman.

Portrait Mask (Mblo)

Baule people (Côte d'Ivoire)

Early 20th century CE

Form: Wood and pigment

Function: Meant to pay respect to specific individuals

Once the mask is complete, the honoree attends the ceremony and watches the dance in their name, they are then given a mask as a gift. The masks are not done as a realistic portrait and are largely abstract in form. They are however uniquely crafted for that specific individual.

Aka Elephant Mask

Bamileke (Cameroon, western grasslands region)

c. 19th to 20th century CE

Form: Wood, woven raffia, cloth, and beads

Function: Worn by only elite members of the elephant society

Members of the Kuosi elephant society, including royals, warriors, and wealthy elite wore the masks during ceremonial dances. The masks made of wood, woven rathia, cloth, shells, and beads have large ears and a long panel in the front. They're meant to look like the ears and trunk of an elephant. The geometric designs and patterns are symbolic of strength and royalty.

Conical tower and circular wall of Great Zimbabwe

Southeastern Zimbabwe

Shona people

c. 1000-1400 CE

Form: Coursed granite blocks

Function: Part of the great Zimbabwe complex, and was believed to have been the sight of the royal residence

This stone enclosure is part of the great Zimbabwe complex, and it is believed to have been the sight of the royal residence. The stone work is done in coarse granite blocks that were fit together without mortar. The great enclosure is made up of a large circular stone wall, over 820 feet in length, and up to 36 feet high in some spots. Some of the structures on the site, including the wall itself, are constructed with geometric designs, and with an overall dominant theme of curved lines. The conical tower inside the circular wall is shaped similar to a grain silo. While the exact function is unknown, some scholars believe that it may have been to encourage successful crops and prosperity.

Great Mosque of Djenne

Mali

Founded c. 1200 CE (Rebuilt 1906-1907)

Form: Adobe

Function: Built by the first Muslim ruler, King Mansa Musa. The center of the town's marketplace

The Great Mosque is made of adobe mud-brick and is the center of the town's marketplace. The structure has traditional mosque elements, such as the towering minarets on the facade, a mihrab, and a qibla wall, which points the faithful towards Mecca. The exterior of the structure includes a series of tower peaks topped with ostrich egged shaped adornments, a sign of purity and fertility. There are also torons protruding from the side walls. Torons are wood beams that project from the exterior walls, and act as a permanent ladder system to aid in the constant repair and maintenance necessary for a mud-brick structure.

Veranda post of enthroned king and senior wife (Opo Ogoga)

Olowe of Ise (Yoruba peoples)

c. 1910-1914 CE

Form: Wood and pigment

Function: Served as the support for the verandas of a inner place in Nigeria

The post is one of four of its kind, all utilizing sculptural groups or sculpture including more than one subject. In this example, hierarchy of scale is used to show the importance of women in society. The King's senior wife stands tall above the King himself. She is there to crown him during his coronation and to help protect him during his reign. At the bottom of the post, smaller figures are represented to show the junior wife and other members of the court kneeling to honor the King.

Nan Madol

Pohnpei, Micronesia

Saudeleur Dynasty

c. 700-1600 CE

Form: Basalt boulders and prismatic columns

Function: Believed to have been the main capital of the Saudeleur Dynasty of Micronesia

This city is a series of artificial islands, built from large stones. Many of the structures were formed from basalt boulders and prismatic columns. The walls were built in a vertical pattern, alternating between the flat basalt boulders, and the round column shaped rocks. Nan Madol consists of 92 two small, man-made islands built out onto a lagoon. There are a series of canals between the islands making them accessible by canoe. These canals are continuously flushed out by the changing tides, creating a constant source of clean water.

Female Deity

Nukuoro, Micronesia

18th-19th Century

Form: Wood

Function: Often kept in religious temples

The sculptures all have simple geometric qualities. Their heads have an ovoid, or egg shape, with a pointed chin. The face is typically featureless, with some sculptures having just simple lines for eyes. The "Nukuoro" statues, this one standing about 15 inches tall, are believed to represent individual deities, and were often kept in religious temples. They were sometimes found dressed or wrapped in loomed bands, mats or feathers.

Navigation Chart

Marshall Islands, Micronesia

19th to early 20th century CE

Form: Wood and fiber

Function: Used to help guide the boats through the rocks and the reefs

The navigation charts were made of wood sticks and fibers. The horizontal and vertical sticks provide the support for the chart. While the diagonal and curved sticks indicated the wind and water currents. The charts also show cowrie or other small shells to represent the island locations. Navigation charts were designed to be memorized, however, they were also made to be waterproof and buoyant to help those still learning in the event they were dropped while sailing.

'Ahu'ula (feather cape)

Hawaiian

Late 18th century CE

Form: Feathers and fiber

Function: A cape worn by people with high ranking in nobility, power, or social status

The red feathers were made from a local 'i'iwi bird. The yellow and black feathers were from the 'o'o bird. Red was considered to be a royal color in Polynesia, while the yellow feathers were prized due to their scarcity. No two capes were identical, but most are similar in color and in the geometrical shapes. The feather capes were worn by men, typically those who were high ranking in nobility, power, or social status

Staff God

Rarotonga, Cook Islands

Late 18th to 19th century CE

Form: Wood, tapa fiber, and feathers

Function: Represents the soul of the god

Male artists typically carved the staff out of wood. The staff were large in size, such as this one which is almost 13 feet long. The design loosely resembles a body with a clear head placed on top of the staff. The women of the island also played a role in the staff gods. Women created a bark cloth covering that the staff was wrapped in as a sign of protection for the god the staff represents. The staff gods were carried upright by the islanders, and would be propped up in the center of their village in a place of honor.

Hiapo (tapa)

Niue

c. 1850-1900 CE

Form: Tapa or bark cloth, freehand painting

Function: Traditionally used for clothing, bedding, and for wall decor.

The designs were painted free hand, stenciled, or stamped onto the cloth. Many of the designs for the Hiapo included geometric motifs. As seen in the example of Niue with a free hand painted design. Bark cloths were traditionally used for clothing, bedding, and for wall decor.

Malagan Display and mask

New Ireland Province, Papua New Guinea

c. 20th century CE

Form: Wood, pigment, fiber, and shell

Function: The symbols refer to the person it was made for, designed to honor their clan

The masks of Papua New Guinea cultures were extremely intricate and were embedded with a great deal of meaning. Using symbols that refer to the person it was made for and to honor their clan. Some were made to represent spirits, or the life force of the deceased rather than a portrait-like representation. Malagan ceremonies were large, typically multi-day events held to honor someone who has died and to help send their souls to the other world. Once the ceremonies were complete, the sculptures were typically destroyed or allowed to rot away. The object served a single use purpose and would not be used again.

Buk (mask)

Torres Strait

Mid-to late 19th century CE

Form: Turtle shell, wood, fiber, feathers, and shell

Function: Used as part of ceremonies commemorating fertility, male initiation or funerary rituals.

They were made with turtle shells in addition to the more typical wood, fibers, and shells. The ceremonial rituals included drums, dance, and chanting with the wearer often dressed in grass costumes. Some of the masks from this region are a combination of human and animal form. In this example, the bottom portion of the mask depicts a human head while the top depicts a type of bird with wings outstretched. The use of animals in the masks may represent a mythical connection or a link to a totemic spirit

Tamati Waka Nene

Gottfried Lindauer

1890 CE

Form: Oil on Canvas

Function: Depicts Maori chief Tamati Waka Nene in 1890, almost 10 years after the chief had died.

Lindauer captures the mana, or the spirit, of Tamati Waka Nene, who is wearing a cloak of kiwi bird feathers and green stone earrings. The carved weapon in his hands, adorned with feathers and an eye carved from an abalone shell, further convey the importance and status of the chief. In the Maori culture, face tattoos, or Moko, depict the specific details about the person including such things as their rank, position, mana-spirit, and birth status.

Maoi

On platform (ahu)

Rapa Nui (Easter Island)

c. 1100-1600 CE

Form: Volcanic tuff figures on basalt base

Function: Believed to represent the first settlers of the island, or to celebrate their ancestors

Most of the nearly 900 statues are made of volcanic tuff, some of which were erected on a large stone platform made of basalt. There are a smaller number of sculptures made completely of basalt, common features of the "Moai" include permanent foreheads, large fish hook shape noses, thin lips, and large ears. The "Moai" are believed to represent the first settlers of the islands, or to celebrate their ancestors. The location of the statues may also have marked sacred grounds. The "Moai" statues of Easter Island may have been created with that same purpose in mind. Easter Island was named by a Dutch explorer who discovered it on Easter Sunday in 1722.

Presentation of Fijian mats and tapa cloths to Queen Elizabeth II

Fuji, Polynesia

1953 CE

Multimedia Presentation (costume, cosmetics, including scent, chant, movement, tapa, and mats)

Form: Photographic documentation

Function: Shows the tapa being presented to Queen Elizabeth II

An enormous tapa cloth was made specifically for the Queen, to present to her on her visit. The tapa was decorated with a royal motif of crowns, and other geometric and floral patterns. The tapa was made in the traditional manner of pulling bark from mulberry trees. The Fujian men would tend to the trees and pull the bark while the women turn the bark into cloth by beating it thin and pasting layers together. The tapa was presented to the queen in a performance of music and dance.

Guggenheim Museum

Bilbao, Spain

Architect = Frank Gehry

1997 CE

Form: Titanium, glass, and limestone

Function: Designed to sit along the river, hoping that it would revitalize the region

Gehry based his building design on a marine theme, using organic curved forms to resemble a ship and sails. The exterior is largely asymmetrical and is covered in titanium tiles that are textured to reflect the sun. The surface appearance changes based on the weather, reflecting more sunlight on clear days as compared to a completely different appearance on cloudier days. Gehry's work has been called deconstructivism, which refers to the disjointed lines and an appearance of disorder. There is a glass-walled atrium in the center of the museum that creates a connected feel between all three floors of the museum's galleries. The Basque government selected the port area with the hope that a new, modern art museum would revitalize the region. Since the grand opening, it has done just that.

MAXXI National Museum of XXI Century Arts

Rome, Italy

Zaha Hadid (architect)

2009 CE

Form: Glass, steel, and cement

Function: Changed all of the rules of forms of architecture.

This museum was designed with an overall theme of movement. The building is constructed into what looks like overlapping and intersecting oblong tubes. The interior is covered by a glass roof, allowing natural light to flow into the structure. The walls curve into one another.

Horn Players

Jean-Michel Basquiat

1983 CE

Form: Acrylic and oil paintstick on three canvas panels

Function: Touches upon themes of identity, racism, and societal tensions

"Horn Players" is based on a triptych design with three panels combined into one larger work. The outer panels feature jazz legends Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie. Parker is shown with his saxophone, and Gillespie with his trumpet. In typical Basquiat style, the colors are flat and without perspective. Basquiat also incorporated words and other shapes and forms in his work. In this piece, he included the musicians' names among others. Many of the words are written and crossed off multiple times. There is a frenetic energy in this work. His overall style is called Neo-Expressionism or New Expressionism

Dancing at the Louvre

The French Collection Series Part I: #1

Faith Ringgold

1991 CE

Form: Acrylic on canvas, tie-dyed, pieced fabric border

Function: Part of a 12-part series of works that tells a story of a young African American girl traveling around Paris

In this piece, Willia and her friends are dancing inside the museum in front of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa. The moment is poignant, because most people are solemn and quiet in museums. Here, Wilya is celebrating being surrounded by the art and in a way becoming an artwork herself. The center panel of the work is acrylic on canvas. Ringgold sewed the border of the canvas in the same way one would sew a quilt. She also sewed quilting lines across the canvas to give the entire piece a textile appearance. "Dancing at the Louvre" is part of a 12-part series of works telling a story of a young African American girl, Willia Marie Simone, as she travels to Paris and meets well known artists

Summer Trees

Song Su-nam

1983 CE

Form: Ink on paper

Function: Honors his cultural heritage

Song Su-nam uses thick lines of ink with various tonal variations and widths. It is a blend of the traditional ink paintings with a more abstract modern feel. Ink painting was a traditional form of art in Korea. Song Su-nam is responsible for a resurgence of a new form of Sumukhwa ink paintings beginning in the 1980s

Trade (Gifts for Trading Land with White People)

Jaune Quick-to-See Smith

1992 CE

Form: Oil and mixed media on canvas

Function: Created as a un-celebration of the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus

The canvas is covered with newspaper clippings and advertising images depicting experiences of life for Native Americans. Above the clippings are layers of paint where red is a more prominent color. The top layer includes the outline of a canoe, a reference to the movement of the tribes away from their land. Above the canvas, hangs a collection of trinkets that are symbols of the items traded for the native land

Preying Mantra

Wangechi Mutu

2006 CE

Form: Mixed media on Mylar

Function: Recreated the traditional Reclining Nude found in western art

The woman is reclined, almost camouflaged on a background that is similar to a cuba cloth. A cuba cloth is a traditional African textile. She has one arm behind her head and is looking at the viewer. There is a green snake intertwined in her other hand. The image contains references to sexualization and exploitation. The snake brings in symbolism from biblical stories of Adam and Eve. The female figure is human in form but seems like a hybrid of other forms. In "Preying Mantra", Mutu recreates the traditional Reclining Nude found in Western art.

Lying with the Wolf

Kiki Smith

2001 CE

Form: Ink and pencil on paper

Function: Explores sex and gender, part of a series that explored mythological and biblical tales

With ink and pencil on wrinkled paper, Smith draws a nude woman holding a wolf. The work was in a series that explored mythological and biblical tales as well as Victorian literature. The theme for all of the works in the series was the feminine identity. In this drawing, Smith shows the power of femininity as strong enough to tame a wild beast. Kiki Smith also explores sex and gender in "Lying with the Wolf".

Stadia II

Julie Mehretu

2004 CE

Form: Ink and acrylic on canvas

Function: Blends architecture with painting

The massive canvas, 9 feet by 12 feet in size, was built up layer-by-layer, similar to how construction occurs. The objects are reminiscent of flags and icons or symbols, leading some scholars to believe it is a commentary on the struggle between cultural identity, nationalism and consumerism. Julie Mehretu was an Ethiopian-born artist who moved to New York city, known for her dense abstract works. Mehritu's style blends architecture with painting. At first glance, "Stadia II'' looks like a confusing flurry of objects. There are layers upon layers of objects, lines, and plans

Earth's Creation

Emily Kame Kngwarreye

1994 CE

Form: Synthetic polymer paint on canvas

Function: Celebrates green time, or the period of lush growth and vegetation following the rainy season

Earth's creation celebrates green time, or the period of lush growth and vegetation following the rainy season. Kngwarreye's method for painting such a large canvas was called the dump dot technique. She deposits color by repeatedly pounding the brush onto the canvas. This allows her to build up color and create a layered volume to the work. Kngwarreye's materials and methods may be unique for aboriginal art, but she remained true to her cultural heritage in her style of work.

Androgyne III

Magdalena Abakanowicz

1985 CE

Form: Burlap, resin, wood, nails, and string

Function: Recall existential questions of life and death. Could be a man or women with a hollow body

She often sculpted the human form using the burlap cast with resin to harden it. Some of her figures sit alone while others are in groups, they often are without heads and sometimes without limbs. "Androgyne III" is one of her sculptural works, the headless, limbless figure sits hunched over on a stretcher made of wood, the title implies that this could be a man or woman, the body of the figure is hollow and empty. The sculptures of Magdalena Abakanowicz recall existential questions of life and death, as well as the theme of the individual versus the collective identity.

A Book from the Sky

Xu Bing

1987-1991 CE

Form: Mixed-media installation

Function: Features hand-printed books and scrolls.

On the walls are rows of paper filled with what looks to be Chinese characters. On the floor are rows of open hand-bound books also filled with the Chinese characters, the forms wave as if they are part of the sea. Above them hang three long scrolls as if they were the sky, they too are filled with the Chinese lettering. The letters were created using carved wood blocks, a type of movable press that dates back to the 8th century Tang Dynasty. The one difference is that Xu Bing made up all of the letters used in the work to look like Chinese characters, they are all invented calligraphic letters that have no meaning.

Pink Panther

Jeff Koons

1988 CE

Form: Glazed porcelain

Function: Part of a series that lacks unoriginal and lacking novelty. May be commenting on the idea of the commodity of sex and beauty

The life-size sculpture features an overly feminized blonde pin-up style woman with heavy makeup. The woman, believed to have been inspired by movie stars Jayne Mansfield or Marilyn Monroe, represents the idealized female from popular American culture. She is in an embrace with a cartoon character, the Pink Panther, from a popular TV and film series from the 1960s and 70s. In this work Koons may be commenting on the idea of the commodity of sex and beauty. Some critics call his work kitschy, or being tacky, or of low quality, yet they still remain popular. "Pink Panther" is a sculpture Koons created in part of a series called "Banality" in 1988. Banality means unoriginal or lacking novelty

Pisupo Lua Afe (Corned Beef 2000)

Michel Tuffery

1994 CE

Form: Mixed media

Function: Commentary on the substitution of processed foods that replaced the natural ones

One of his well known pieces is "Pisupo Lua Afe", or "Corned Beef 2000", the sculpture of a cow is about 3.5 feet tall, it is made of flattened cans of corned beef that have been riveted together. Pisupo is the Samoan word for pea soup which was the first canned food item introduced to the island, from that point on all canned foods were referred to as pisupo. For Samoans canned corned beef became a delicacy and was eaten on special occasions and presented as gifts. Tuffery's work is a commentary on the substitution of processed foods that replaced the islander's natural ones, even deeper it is a commentary on the negative side effects colonization has had on the island of New Zealand.

Old Man's Cloth

El Anatsui

2003 CE

Form: Aluminum and copper wire

Function: Points out the effects of trade and colonization

In this piece he used recycled metal materials and connected them with copper wire, creating a cloth-like form, the metal used was from over 1,000 discarded liquor bottle tops. The symbolic meaning of the bottle tops refers to the fact that liquor was used by Europeans as an item of trade with Africans, eventually it became one of the commodities in the Transatlantic slave trade. The complicated introduction of alcohol, and later issues with addiction, make the medium of Anatsui's work also part of the meaning

The Swing (after Fragonard)

Yinka Shonibare

2001 CE

Form: Mixed-Media installation

Function: Inspired by the Rococo painting by Fragonard.

Shonibare's version is not the light, airy Rococo dream, but rather a life-sized headless mannequin suspended from the ceiling, she is wearing a dress made from African wax prints, also known as Dutch wax prints. In "The Swing", Shonibare included flowering vines that create a canopy over the swing and fill the floor beneath it. She even loses her shoe, as in Fragonard's original work. She also seems to have lost her head, perhaps a reminder of the beheadings of some French royalty and aristocracy following the frivolous Rococo period.

Untitled (#228)

History Portraits Series

Cindy Sherman

1990 CE

Form: Photograph

Function: Depicts the story of Judith killing the Assyrian general, Holofernes.

"Untitled (#228)" is from the "History Portraits" series. Here, Sherman styles herself as Judith, holding the head of Holofernes. The story of Judith killing the Assyrian general, Holofernes, by seducing him, getting him intoxicated, then beheading him is one that has been featured in a number of artworks throughout our history. Her "Untitled Film Still" series takes on the stereotypical female role that is presented in film and in the press.

Rebellious Silence

Women of Allah series

Artist = Shirin Neshat

Photographer = Cynthia Preston

1994 CE

Form: Ink on Photograph

Function: Some people view it as a commentary on female oppression, while others may see it as a strong woman defending her faith.

Nishat's featured wearing a chador, or a large piece of cloth that covers the head and upper body, leaving the face exposed, worn by many Muslim women. Nishat used ink to write across her face in the photo. It is a text of a poem written in Farsi that questions a woman's role in society and in revolution. The barrel of a rifle divides her face, casting a shadow that darkens one half of her face. An interpretation of "Rebellious Silence" may vary depending on your personal belief system. Some may view it as a commentary on female oppression. While others may see it as a strong woman defending her faith.

Pure Land

Mariko Mori

1998 CE

Form: Color photograph on glass

Function: A still image from a 3D video experience that Mori created, titled "Nirvana".

Pure Land" is a large colored photograph set in glass. It is a still image from a 3D video experience that Mori created, titled "Nirvana". In the still and video, Mori stars as a floating goddess, surrounded by figures that look like they come from cartoons and video games. Mori is playing the role of a Japanese Buddhist deity, a Goddess of beauty and happiness. She holds a jewel that helps grant wishes and dispels evil. In "Pure Land", Mori creates a Nirvana-like setting in which she blends traditional Japanese art, Buddhist beliefs, and items of contemporary Japanese pop-culture.

Electronic Superhighway

Nam June Paik

1995 CE

Form: Mixed-media installation (49-channel closed-circuit, video installation, neon, steel, and electronic components)

Function: Describes how Paik was learning about the US through TV-based medium, rather than actual travel along the highways

The installation is made of over 300 TV monitors that are set into a neon light outline of the United States. Each state has its own show playing and the installation includes live streaming video of the viewer looking at the artwork. He used the words electronic superhighway to describe learning about the US through TV-based medium, rather than actual travel along the highways

The Crossing

Bill Viola

1996 CE

Form: Video/sound installation

Function: Draws connections to the cycle of birth and death, or purification and destruction.

Viola created this work as a 12 foot tall, double-sided video screen with two projectors displaying a different video on each side. The videos were intended to be viewed in a dark room. On one side, the video shows a male figure walking towards you. A small flame begins at his feet, and quickly engulfs his entire body in flames. When the fire subsides, the man is gone. The video on the opposite side again shows a man slowly walking towards you, it begins with a slow trickle of water but grows to a torrential downpour. Again, once the water subsides, the man is gone.

Darkytown Rebellion

Kara Walker

2001 CE

Form: Cut paper and projection on wall

Function: Depicts history of slavery in the United States up close, but far away, it looks like a colorful and playful feeling

Light projectors overhead fill the space with colored lights, creating a colorful and playful feeling. That is, until you look closer at the silhouettes. Walker included harsh images of life in the Antebellum South, in the time before the Civil War. There are images of a figure standing next to an amputated limb, and a woman in a fancy dress attacking a smaller figure lying below her. As the viewer walks around the lighted exhibit, their shadow is cast among the silhouettes on the wall. Walker's use of these lights, add the viewers likeness into the history of slavery in the United States. The viewer becomes part of the narrative.

Narcissus Garden

Yayoi Kusama

Original Installation and performance = 1966

Form: Mirror balls

Function: Based on the story of the Greek of Narcissis.

The mirror balls in Kusama's Narcissus garden were based on the Greek of Narcissis. As the story goes, Narcissis became so enamored with his own reflection in the pool that he eventually perished because of it. The flower that grew in the place where he died was called a narcissis. Kusama was asked to leave the exhibit that day, but her narcissus garden has been exhibited dozens of times in various places, both in water and dry locations.

Spiral Jetty

Great Salt Lake, U.S.

Robert Smithson

1970 CE

Form: Earthwork: mud, precipitated salt crystals, rocks, and water coil

Function: An earthwork that was one of Smithson's last major artworks

To create this spiral, Smithson brought in contractors to move truckloads of mud and basalt rocks into this space. The original rocks were black, but the high salt content in the lake turned them white over time. The result is a 1,500-foot path that jets out from the shore, and then creates a counterclockwise spiral. Smithson selected the spot along the north eastern shore of the great salt lake in Utah for several reasons, the water of the northern part of the lake has a reddish color due to the high salt content and bacteria. Spiral Jetty was one of Smithson's last major artworks. He died in a plane crash three years after its completion

The Gates

New York City, U.S.

Christo and Jeanne-Claude

1979-2005 CE

Form: Mixed-media installation

Function: An environmental installation work

Plans for the gates began in 1979, but the work was not installed until 2005. The installation consisted of 7,500 constructed gates. That were installed along 20 plus miles of walking paths in New York's Central Park. Each gate stood over 16 feet high and was wrapped in a piece of saffron colored fabric that billowed in the wind. It took over 25 years to plan, fund, and build the project. They have created curtains across mountain ranges, built floating bridges, and surrounded islands with bright pink fabric.

Vietnam Veterans Memorial

Washington, D.C., U.S.

Maya Lin

1982 CE

Form: Granite

Function: Serve as a monument for those soldiers who lost their lives during the war.

The Vietnam Veterans memorial is a black, V-shaped granite structure that is built down into the earth. Along the walls are the carved names of the over 57,000 soldiers who died as a result of the war. The monument allows the visitor to descend down a sloped walkway to the corner of the V and then ascend again along the other half as it moves closer to ground level. The highly reflective granite surface allows the viewer to see a reflection of themselves in the walls. Visitors can also use slips of paper and pencils to create etchings of their loved ones' names. Maya Lin was the designer of the selected plans and began construction on a monument that was unlike most traditional ones. Some critics found it to be too dark and abstract. There were even displays of modern racism in the fact that some criticized the selection of Maya Lin simply because she was a Chinese-American woman.

En la Barberia no se Llora (No Crying Allowed in the Barbershop)

Pepon Osorio

1994 CE

Form: Mixed-media installation

Function: Based on Osorio's own experience as a child receiving his haircut and hearing that he could not cry.

Osorio created an interactive experience. The installation was set up in a vacant store turned into a kitschy barbershop. Viewers walk into the store and are surrounded by images and videos showing the contradictions Latin men face in life. There are images, both still and video, of masculinity interspersed among those of men crying. The barbershop is filled with masculine items and remnants of a consumer-based society.

Shibboleth

Doris Salcedo

2007-2008 CE

Form: Installation

Function: Salcedo describes the crack as the experience of immigrants in a new country, but it is also representative of the space between people, between cultures.

Colombian artist Doris Salcedo created a temporary 548-foot long crack in the floor of the museum. The fissure starts out as a hairline crack, and then continues to widen until it is several inches across, and two feet deep in some places. The title Shibboleth refers to a custom or phrase that is known to a group but will be misunderstood or mispronounced by those not in the group. It is something that separates and divides groups.

Kui Hai Zi (Sunflower Seeds)

Ai Weiwei

2010-2011 CE

Form: Sculpted and painted porcelain

Function: Depicts a priced food source during the famine under Chairman Mao Zedong's rule.

Content:

Ai Weiwei selected the sunflower seeds because they were a priced food source during the famine under Chairman Mao Zedong's rule. Chinese propaganda also refers to Chairman Mao as the sun. And the citizens of China as the sunflowers. At the opening of the sunflower seeds exhibit, visitors were encouraged to walk around the seeds, and to experience them by touchAfter about a week, museum officials decided visitors should walk along the sides of the exhibit. To avoid crushing the porcelain seeds as the dust may have been harmful debris