State of Crime

Globalisation of crime, Held

‘Widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of life, from the cultural to the criminal, the financial to the spiritual’ Held 1999

Held et al suggest there’s been a globalisation of crime across national borders. Same process that globalised legitimate activities have brought the spread of transnational organised crime, illegitimate activities. - This is harder to police as no overarching authority on methods of communication such as internet (dark web)

Global Crime economy

Castells 1998 argues new global criminal economy worth over 1 trillion per annum, transnational networks of organised crime that often involves state officials Creates a supply-demand system that exploits poor people, 20% of the Colombian population relies on drug production for livelihood. 

• Arms trafficking to illegal regimes

• Smuggling of illegal immigrants 

• Selling organs (China) Women and children + sex tourism 

• Cyber crime, green crime, terrorist

Forms of OCG

Farr 2005 suggests there are two main forms:

Established mafias: Italian-American Mafia Newer organised crime groups: The Colombian Drug Cartel whose activities overlap and cause global nature of crime to increase further

Glenny 2009 –Fall of soviet union aligned with deregulation of markets, creating a global shadow economy. coins the term McMafia, phenomenon where groups mirror the activities of legal transnational companies 

Glocalism

Hobbs and Dunningham 1998 Studies of economically depressed post-industrial towns found no evidence of large OCG but individuals with contacts acted as hubs connecting loose groupings of criminals. They believe UK isn’t dominated by OGS but a glocal system

‘Glocal’ to describe the interconnectivity between local contexts global links, precise criminal activity will be shaped by the cultural, political and economic circumstances of the local and global contexts

Wall and Christyakova agree, OCGs are shifting to less risky, less violent lucrative market niches. Fraud, drugs, counterfeiting tobacco and sex trafficking are the highest organised illegal markets and are able to thrirve locally

Globalisation disorganised capitalism + inequality

Lash and Urry 1987 – globalisation accompanies by less regulation and fewer state controls over business and finance – disorganised capitalism. 

Taylor 1999 – this process has led to fewer job opportunities and less job security, a reduction in the state provision of welfare and healthcare undermines social cohesion and fuels crime – people search for alternative opportunities.  

Growing Inequality

Taylor 1997 – winners = rich financial investors and Transnational corporations based in western countries. Losers = workers. The most disadvantaged in all societies are at most risk and have insecurity, experience growing relative deprivation which feeds crime. Columbia 20%

Globalisation supply demand + consumerism

Supply and demand High levels of emigration to western countries had made immigration more difficult and created market in human trafficking, immigrants that are in debt to smuggling gangs are forced into slavery to repay their debt

Ideology of consumerism: Tourism migration and media has spread the culture and ideology of consumerism. Media saturated societies in developed and developing countries are exposed to this ideology, bulimic society encourages a turn to crime

Global risk consciousness

new insecurities and mentality of ‘risk consciousness’ where risk is seen as global. For example, movement of economic migrants and asylum seekers has given rise to an anxiety to protect borders. Rationality of these fears is in question, media often gives an exaggerated view of dangers we face, creating moral panics and showing negative coverage of immigrants as terrorists or flooding the country, leading to hate crimes. 

Traditional criminology green crime

Traditional criminology: Suggests that we should only be concerned with the breaking of regulations and if no law has been broken then no crime has taken place. Criticised for only including official definitions of green crime which are often shaped in the interests of the powerful.

Green criminology

 White 2008: we need to start from a notion of harm rather than criminal law, any action that harms the physical environment is in fact criminal. Some of the worst environmental harms aren’t illegal so this scope covers more than traditional criminology and is therefore a transgressive criminology that includes more in its boundaries.

Similar to Marxists who argue capitalist class shape laws, nation-states and transnational corporations are able to define their own interests as what counts as crime, taking an anthropocentric view of environmental harm, humans have a right to dominate nature. 

Ecocentric views sees humans and the environment are interdependent, both can be exploited by global capitalism 

Forms of green crime harm

Primary crimes result directly from destruction of environment

• Crimes of air pollution- 6 billions tons of carbon every year, growing 2% per annum

• Deforestation- 1960-1990, 1/5th of rainforests destroyed

• Water pollution- 25 million per year die from contaminated water, marine pollution threatens 58% of world's ocean reefs

Secondary grows out of flouting rules aimed at preventing environmental disasters

• State violence against oppositional groups- 1985 French SS blew up greenpeace ship in NZ, killing 1, they were there to prevent nuclear weapon testing in south pacific. There are more cases where the gov is committed to nuclear weapons, those who oppose are seen as enemies of the state.

• Hazardous waste and organised crime- High costs of legal disposal means businesses may get rid of waste illegally. Italy eco-mafias profit off dumping in the sea, pollutes gulf of naples. Has global international trade as waste travels to poorer countries.  Bridgland 2006 describes tsunami of 2004 and how it washed up barrels of hazardous waste in African countries

Green Crime inequality

Wolf points out widespread inequalities in the distribution of harm and in how laws are made, applied and enforced. 

Potter 2010 – current social divisions are reinforced by environmental harms with the least powerful being the most likely victims. ‘Environmental Racism’ – those who suffer the worst effects are of different ethnicity to those who create the harm. 

White 2003 – the developing world increasing provides legal and illegal dumpsites for the developed world's unwanted waste – causing the residents far greater risk to air, water and land pollution. 

Defining state crime

Chambliss (1989) describes state crime as ‘acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as representatives of the state’  However, states have the power to make laws so can avoid criminality, domestic law defined by a state is inadequate  

We should replace the study of crimes as zeminology - the study of harms (Hillyard 2004). The current exclusive focus provides a biased view of the extent of harm people experience in a lifetime. This definition prevents states from ruling themselves out of court. 

Evaluation of Zeminology

Advantages: Virtually all states care about their Human rights image as they are global social norms (Risse et al (1999) . Transgressive approach means sociologists can defend people against state laws, going beyond traditional boundaries.

Disadvantages: Disagreements on what should be a Human Right - should hunger be one? E.g Uk gov diverted food in the 1840 Irish famine - is it criminal state crime?

Harm is no easier to define than crime and requires making value judgements that reflect ideological preferences (Hillyard responds arguing debate to reach a definition would be positive, objection aren't insuperable obstacles to new definition)

Human rights

Human rights aims to provide a standard which social harms can be judged against, in principle should work as nearly every state has signed a declaration. However, it doesn’t necessarily work. The 1990 organisation of islamic conference argued that Sharia law takes precedence over secularism and women don’t have the same rights as men in marrying more than one spouse for

ICSI and categories of state crime

International state crime initiative ICSI follows the idea that state crime could be defined as violation of human rights by the state, not accepting laws but exploring harm. On this basis Mclaughlin 2012 identifies four categories of state crime

• Political crime- corruption, censorship

• Crimes associated with security- genocide, torture, ethnic cleansing

• Economic crimes- violation of health and safety, monopolisation, collaboration with TNCs

• Social and cultural crimes- institutional racism , cultural vandalism

State corporate crime

From ‘illegal collaboration with multinational corps’ in Mclaughlin’s definition, Michalowski 1991 emphasises the new hybrid category of state corporate crime. State initiated crime occurs when corps employed by gov engage in deviance with government approval, state facilitated corporate crime occurs when regulatory institutions fail to restrain deviance because of collusion or because of similar goals that regulation would hamper. Can also merge eg. Paducah diffusion plant in Kentucky initially had a lax attitude where 400 workers received 20 times recommended radiation dose. As it progressed, took on the role of regulator passing on responsibility, becoming facilitator.

Modern culture in state crime

Some people argue holocaust reverted to pre modern barbarity, Bauman 1989 opposite view, small division of labour meant no one felt responsible, bureaucratisation normalised killing by making it routine, instrumental rationality where rational methods are used to achieve a goal profit, technology makes it industrial. Not the breakdown of civilization but modern rational civilization. 

Kelman and and Hamilton (1989) identified three general features of crimes of obedience 

• Authorisation- when allowed by the state, moral principles replaced by obedience

• Routinisation- Strong pressure to turn into a routine perpetrators can detach from 

• Dehumanisation, moral principles don’t apply

State Crime denial

Cohen 2006 argues states make an effort to cover human rights crimes, democratic states have to justify.

Step 1 - deny it happened, human rights organisations uncovers

Step 2- Call it self- defence instead of murder etc

Step 3- Justify it, fight the war on terror

This justifies coercive interrogation processes of the USA for example, merely stresses the importance of the course and amplifies fear

Contemporary example of state crime

2007 UK signed up to the UN convention on rights of people with disabilities, 2015 campaigners ‘Disabled People against Cuts’ submitted evidence to UN committee that disabled people were disproportionately harmed by labour coalition gov austerity policies. Triggered investigation that found gov reforms led to systematic violation of rights through cuts of pip and independent living fund and ‘bedroom tax’. Climate portrays disabled as lazy and putting burden on tax payers, gov rejected report saying it presented inaccurate picture. No way to enforce recommendations 

Selective aspect of media

Coverage is highly selective and certain kinds of crime are given priority and those that are covered are done through ‘interpretative frameworks (Hall 1973) that present ideas with an angle. For example language used to describe rapists of ‘beasts’ and ‘sex fiends’ connotes to animalistic passions rather than something ordinary men do. 

Portrayal of sexual assault in media

On Sexual assault, Marhia 2008 analysed sample of news articles appearing on BBC and argues way these are reported constructs rape as ‘an outdoor crime at the hands of a monstrous or bestial deviant stranger’. 48% reports about rape resulted in conviction but only 5% of cases do, 54% attacks by strangers but only 8-17%. Marhia argues this leads to public misconceptions and affects willingness of victims to report rape. 

Changing coverage of crime

Schlesinger and Tumber 1994 – in the 1960s the focus was on murders and petty crime  But by the 1990s these were of less interest (loss of the death penalty, rising crime rates) so a crime had to be ‘special’. Reporting widened to include drugs, child abuse, terrorism and mugging. 

Soothill and Walby 1991 – increasing preoccupation with sex crimes went from a quarter in 51 to a third in 85. Rape cases  focused on finding a sex fiend, gives a distorted picture of rape as a psychopathic stranger. 

The distorted picture painted of crime represents the fact that the news is a social construct. News doesn’t just exist out there waiting to be gathered – rather it is the outcome of a social process in which some stories are selected and others rejected.

Stan, Jock and Young 1973 say news is not discovered but manufactured.

Compared to official statistics the media…

• Over represent violent and sexual crime 46% - only 3% of crimes

• Portray criminals and victims as older and middle class

• Exaggerates police success 

• Exaggerate the risk of victimisation – especially to women, white people

• Overplay extraordinary crimes and underplay ordinary crimes (Felson - Dramatic Fallacy)

Media violence causing real life violence

McCabe and Martin argue it could have a ‘disinhibition effect’ where violence in the media convinces children normal rules that govern conflict can be suspended as it shows the hero using violence to deal with a problem and bring rewards. 

Could also cause desensitisation, Newson 1994 notes children and subjected to violence and killing in most films, prolonged exposure could have a ‘drip-drip’ effect and they become socialised into accepting violence as normal. For example 2014 Steven Miles at 16 stabbed his girlfriend to death in his bedroom and then dismembering, mimicking the actions of a vigilante serial killer on a TV show. 

However correlation doesn’t equal causation, homicide inclined people could be attracted to violent media and actions could have occurred even if violence wasn’t viewed. 

Cumberbatch 2004 studied film TV video and stated if that no conclusive evidence can be shown about media influencing behaviour, its been subjected to lynch mob mentality with no evidence.

Fear of Crime

There's concern the media may distort the public impression of crime and who its victims are. 

Gerbner et al found people watching television over 4 hours a day had higher levels of fear of crime, could be because television overstates seriousness and risk of victimisation. However Ditton et al found in a literature view that in all attempts to establish a correlation, only 27% find a positive relationship. 

Jewkes 2015 says this makes sense as other factors are more likely to affect fear such as previous experience, environmental conditions, ethnicity etc

Ideological effects of the media on crime

Marxists argue by presenting skewed picture, media justifies present social conditions eg. presenting crime as done by people who are innately evil, economic roots of crime are left unexplored. 

Baumberg 2012 et al examined the data base of newspapers on presentation of benefit claimants. Found extraordinarily disproportionate focus on fraud (29%) when actual estimate of fraud is 0.7%, public opinion survey that follows showed people thought 1 in 4 people were fraudulent (in line with what was presented) suggesting media effects perception. 

Rates of disability hate crime have been rising since 2008. The deteriorating situation could b

Media amplifying relative deprivation

An alternative approach is seeing how ‘normal’ life is portrayed. Left realists Lea and Young 1996 argue that media increases a sense of relative deprivation in poor and marginalised groups, poorest groups have media access to images of materialistic life, leads to social exclusion.

Merton argues pressure to conform to the norm can cause deviant behaviour, media is instrumental in setting the norm. 

Fenwich Hayward 2000 ‘crime is packaged and marketed to young people as a romantic, exciting, cool and fashionable cultural symbol’. Even counter-culture, e.g. graffiti, is sold in ‘brandalism’. Companies use controversy and moral panic to sell products.

Mods and Rockers moral panic

The media identifies a group as folk devil and a threat to societal values. Exaggerate the problem and respectable people condemn the group. Lead to crackdown on groups but may lead to SFP that amplifies problem

Mods and Rockers Cohen 1972 examines response to disturbance between two groups of WC teenagers, mods and rockers from 1964-66

Started as small scuffle but media over-reacted, exaggerated numbers involved and sensationalist headlines, Predicted further conflict would occur, Symbolisation- dress of leather and motor bikes negatively labelled, link unconnected events. 

Deviance amplification spiral

This causes deviance amplification spiral making it seem like the problem is spreading, calls for increased control response from police, marginalisation and lower tolerance. By defining subcultural styles, led to more youth adopting style and crystallising into two distinct identities. Encourages polarisation and SFP. In large scale modern society media is how we experience events so allows this to happen. 

Cohen argues moral panics occur at times of social change and reflect anxiety of loss of accepted values, moral panic comes form boundary crisis of acceptable behaviour. Folk devil gives focus to these anxieties.

Criticism of the idea of moral panics

• Assumes societal reaction is disproportionate but who decides what this is, left realist view is people’s fear of crime is rational

• What causes the amplifier and why don’t they keep increasing

Late modernity- today’s audience who are accustomed to shock react with panic. McRobbie and Thornton 1995 argue moral panic are routine and have less impact. Also now there’s little consensus about what is deviant, e.g. single motherhood, so harder to create a widely accepted panic.