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Habituation : Decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure. Example: Ignoring a ticking clock after a few minutes.

Orienting Response : Automatic reaction to a new or significant stimulus. Example: Turning your head when you hear a sudden noise.

Stimulus-Specific Habituation : Habituation occurs only for the exact stimulus. Example: Getting used to a clock ticking but still noticing a dripping faucet.

Massed vs. Spaced Habituation : Massed = rapid stimuli → fast but short habituation; Spaced = spaced stimuli → slower but longer-lasting habituation.

Spontaneous Recovery : Return of a previously habituated response after a break. Example: Ignoring a siren, leaving, returning, then noticing it again.

Sensitization : Increase in response after repeated exposure. Example: A small cut hurts more if you keep touching it.

Dual Process Theory : Habituation and sensitization occur together; response depends on balance between them. Example: Getting used to a sound but reacting more if it suddenly gets louder.

Opponent Process Theory : Emotions have opposing processes; one triggers an opposite reaction. Example: Fear on a rollercoaster followed by excitement/relief.

Novel Object Recognition Task : Animals prefer exploring new objects over familiar ones. Example: Mouse explores a new toy instead of an old one.

Familiarity : Recognition of previously encountered stimuli. Example: Recognizing a friend’s face.

Priming : Previous exposure to a stimulus influences later response. Example: Seeing “yellow” makes you faster to recognize “banana.”

Word-Stem Completion Task : Test for priming; complete word beginnings. Example: “BAN___” → “BANANA” if primed.

Perceptual Learning : Improved recognition of stimuli through experience. Example: Birdwatcher identifies birds by subtle differences.

Spatial Learning in Rats : Rats remember locations using cues, not just trial-and-error. Example: Learning a maze layout.

Tolman & Honzik Study : Rats develop cognitive maps even without rewards; reward later shows learning occurred.

Aplysia in Research : Simple nervous system allows study of learning at a cellular level.

Theory for Aplysia Research : Supports habituation and sensitization studies; aligns with dual process theory.

Place Cells : Neurons that activate in specific locations to help navigation. Example: Rat hippocampus cells fire when in a particular maze spot.

Classical Conditioning : Learning that a neutral stimulus predicts a meaningful one. Example: Pavlov’s dogs learn bell → food.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) : Naturally triggers a response. Example: Food triggers salivation.

Unconditioned Response (UR) : Natural response to US. Example: Salivation in response to food.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) : Neutral stimulus that now triggers learned response. Example: Bell triggers salivation.

Appetitive Conditioning : Positive stimulus → approach behavior. Example: Food or reward learning.

Aversive Conditioning : Negative stimulus → avoidance behavior. Example: Shock or unpleasant noise.

Conditioned Emotional Response (CER) : Learning fear via classical conditioning. Example: Rat hears tone + shock → stops pressing lever when tone plays.

Eyeblink Reflex : Classical conditioning test: tone + air puff → blink at tone.

Tolerance : Reduced response to repeated drug exposure.

Extinction : CS no longer predicts US → response disappears. Example: Bell rings, no food → salivation decreases.

Compound Conditioning : Two CS presented together; learning may be uneven.

Overshadowing : One CS dominates learning over another when presented together.

Blocking : Prior learning prevents new association. Example: Dog knows bell → food; adding light → food doesn’t create new learning.

Prediction Error : Difference between expected and actual outcomes drives learning.

Rescorla-Wagner Model : Learning strength depends on prediction error; explains blocking and overshadowing.

Gluck & Bower Study : Prior knowledge affects learning of associations.

US Modulation Theory : CS affects how strongly US is processed, impacting learning.

Delay Conditioning : CS stays until US appears.

Trace Conditioning : CS ends before US; requires memory trace to associate.

Garcia & Koelling Study : Taste aversion shows biological preparedness; rats avoid food that made them sick even after delay.