Finals Cheat Sheet

3 Domains of life

Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are the three domains of life that use double-stranded DNA to store genetic information and can independently replicate and maintain homeostasis.

Viruses and Prions

Viruses and prions are not classified under the three domains of life and cannot independently replicate or maintain homeostasis.

AB Toxin

AB toxin is a mechanism with two components - the binding component allows the pathogen to interact with the host cell, while the active component causes damage inside the cell.

Adhesion

Adhesion refers to the protein-protein interaction between a pathogen and host cell, allowing the pathogen to enter the host cell.

Airborne Transmission

Airborne transmission is a mechanism of transmission where droplets containing microorganisms are spread through the air, either directly or indirectly.

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are drugs that inhibit the growth or kill bacteria through various modes of action, such as inhibiting cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, metabolic processes, or nucleic acid synthesis.

Narrow Spectrum (Drugs)

Narrow spectrum drugs are only effective against a limited range of pathogens.

Broad Spectrum (Drugs)

Broad spectrum drugs target many different kinds of bacteria.

Antibody

Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins that are part of the humoral immune response. They can bind to antigens and have variable regions that allow them to recognize multiple epitopes.

Antibody Classes

The major antibody classes are IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE, each with different functions and characteristics.

Antibody-Mediated Immunity

Antibody-mediated immunity involves the production of antibodies by B cells in response to an antigen, leading to the elimination of the pathogen.

Antigens

Antigens are substances that can induce an immune response and can be complete antigens or incomplete antigens (haptens).

Complete Antigens

Complete antigens have immunogenicity, reactivity, and antigenic determinants, and can induce the production of T cells and antibodies.

Incomplete Antigens (Haptens)

Incomplete antigens, also known as haptens, lack immunogenicity, reactivity, and antigenic determinants on their own but can be recognized by antibodies when bound to carrier proteins.

Endogenous Antigens

Endogenous antigens are proteins displayed on the surface of body cells through Class I MHC molecules and are generated by proteases breaking down intracellular proteins.

Exogenous Antigens

Exogenous antigens are specifically brought into the body and displayed on the surface of antigen-presenting cells through Class II MHC molecules.

Small Peptides

Fragments generated by proteases.

Exogenous Antigens

Small peptides that come from outside of antigen-presenting cells (APCs).

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Mechanism by which exogenous antigens are brought into APCs.

Antigenic Drift

Mutations caused by RNA polymerase, leading to changes in surface proteins and the need for yearly flu vaccines.

Antigenic Shift

Combination of surface proteins from different viruses, leading to the emergence of new deadly viruses and pandemics.

Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)

Cells that display class II MHC proteins, including dendritic cells, activated macrophages, and mature B cells.

Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity (ADCC)

Process in which antibodies bind to cancer cells and recruit immune cells to destroy them.

Antimicrobial Peptides (AMPs)

Broad-spectrum peptides that target bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

Iron Binding Proteins (IBPs)

Proteins that bind to iron and prevent its availability for bacterial growth.

Complement

Group of plasma proteins that can cause opsonization, inflammation, and cell lysis.

Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor

Anti-HIV drug that disrupts reverse transcription and prevents viral replication.

Protease Inhibitors (PIs)

Anti-HIV drugs that block the activity of HIV protease, preventing viral protein production.

Integrase Inhibitors

Anti-HIV drugs that prevent the incorporation of HIV genome into the host chromosome.

Fusion Inhibitors

Anti-HIV drugs that prevent HIV entry into host cells.

Aminoglycosides

Antibiotics that disrupt peptide elongation and translation in bacteria.

Atherosclerosis

Narrowing of blood vessels due to plaque deposition, leading to cardiovascular diseases.

Autophagy

Process in which infected cells neutralize intruders by engulfing them in autophagosomes and digesting them.

Allergies

Immune response to incomplete antigens, leading to symptoms upon subsequent exposure.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death triggered by granzymes entering the cell and shredding its DNA.

B Cells

Cells of the adaptive immune system that differentiate into plasma cells and produce antibodies.

Bacteriocins

Antibiotic-like substances released by Gram-Positive Bacteria to kill other Gram-Positive Bacteria.

Bacteriostatic

Inhibiting the growth of bacteria, such as by targeting the 30s subunit and inhibiting protein synthesis.

Bacteriophages or Phages

Viruses that infect bacteria.

Budding

A mechanism by which enveloped viruses exit the host cell without killing it.

Baltimore System

A viral taxonomy system that does not consider evolutionary relationships.

Beta Lactam Ring

A crucial feature of antibiotics like Penicillins, which inhibits transpeptidation and blocks cell wall formation in bacteria.

Beta Lactamase

Enzyme produced by bacteria that hydrolyzes the bond of the Beta Lactam Ring, rendering Penicillin inactive.

Biofilms

Communities of microorganisms that provide microbial protection and are difficult to eliminate.

Planktonic bacteria

Bacteria that live freely and not within biofilms.

Broad Spectrum (Drugs)

Drugs that target many different kinds of bacteria.

CagA

A protein produced by Helicobacter pylori that promotes cell proliferation, survival, migration, and cancer formation in the stomach lining.

Cathelicidins

Antimicrobial peptides that target bacteria, cells with envelopes, and fungi.

Paneth Cells

Cells that produce antimicrobial peptides and lysozyme, which help protect the intestinal lining.

Capsomes

Structural units of capsids, such as those found in the COVID-19 virus (SARS-CoV-2).

Cellular Immunity

Immune response mediated by T cells and B cells.

T-Cell Development

The maturation process of T cells in the thymus, involving positive and negative selection.

Cephalosporins

Antibiotics structurally and functionally similar to Penicillins, which inhibit transpeptidation.

Cutaneous Membrane

The skin, the largest organ of the human body.

S

A resident microorganism on the skin that provides benefits and modulates gene expression in keratinocytes.

Complement

A group of plasma proteins that can cause opsonization, inflammation, and cell lysis as part of the immune response.

COVD-19

The disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

Chronic

Slow release of viral particles from infected host cells without cell death.

Cytotoxic T Cells

T cells that can kill infected cells through antigen presentation and clonal selection.

Cytopathetic Effects (CPEs)

Effects of viral infections on host cells, including cell transformation into malignant cells.

Cytokines

Proteins released during infections that signal the presence of an infection to the body.

Cytokine Storm

A life-threatening condition characterized by excessive release of cytokines, leading to severe symptoms.

Cytolysis

Breakdown of the cytosol and cytoplasm of a cell, often caused by the release of perforins and granzymes.

Dendritic Cells

Immune cells that can function as antigen-presenting cells and are found in various body organ systems.

Degranulation

Release of inflammatory mediators, such as histamines, by mast cells.

Double Strand RNA Viruses

Viruses with RNA genomes consisting of double-stranded RNA.

Double Strand (ds) DNA Viruses

Viruses with DNA genomes that undergo replication, transcription, and translation in host cells.

Double Strand DNA

Viruses that have double-stranded DNA in their genomes and do not require all the necessary organelles for replication.

Drug Resistance

Mechanisms used by bacteria to resist the effects of antibiotics, including modifying the antibiotic target, inactivating the drug, minimizing its concentration in the cell, and preventing its entry.

Dysbiosis

Imbalance in the microbiota of the digestive tract, which can lead to various health conditions such as metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease.

Folic Acid

Essential for the synthesis of purines, building blocks of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA.

Ghrelin

Appetite-stimulating hormone that increases hunger.

Haptens

Small molecules that can bind to antibodies but are not immunogenic on their own.

Hepatitis A

A polyhedral virus that causes inflammation of the liver.

HIV

Human Immunodeficiency Virus that causes AIDS, targeting T helper cells and impairing the immune system.

Herpes Viruses

Examples of latent infections, where the virus can remain dormant in the host for long periods and reactivate under certain conditions.

Reverse Transcription

Process used by retroviruses like HIV to convert their RNA genome into DNA using the enzyme reverse transcriptase.

Microbiome

The collection of microorganisms living in and on the human body, including the gut microbiota that aids in digestion and metabolism.

Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)

Acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid produced by the gut microbiota through fermentation of dietary fibers, with various effects on host metabolism and health.

Bacteriocins

Antibiotics released by Gram-Positive Bacteria to kill other Gram-Positive Bacteria.

Microcins

Antibiotics released by resident enterobacteriaceae to kill bacteria that is taxonomically related.

Colicins

Antibiotics released by E. Coli.

Indirect Mechanism

Microbe-Host Pathogen interaction that induces the host to deal with nonresident pathogenic agents.

Peptidoglycans

Components released by bacteria that induce human cells to release antimicrobial peptides and C-Type Lectins.

Short chain fatty acids

Components released by bacteria that induce human cells to release antimicrobial peptides and C-Type Lectins.

AMPS (Antimicrobial Peptides)

Components released by human cells in response to bacterial components, they kill nonresident gram-positive bacteria.

C-Type Lectins

Components released by human cells in response to bacterial components, they kill nonresident gram-positive bacteria.

Secondary bile acids

Released by bacteria, they limit inflammation of the digestive tract lining and inhibit nonresident pathogenic growth.

GALT (Gut Associated Lymphatic Tissue)

A specific type of MALT (Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue) found in the gut.

Pyer Patch

A type of lymphoid tissue found in the gut.

Lymphatic Follicles

Clusters of lymphoid tissue found in the gut.

SIgA (Secretory IgA)

A dimeric form of IgA found in the mucous membrane, with high affinity for antigens.

Host Entry vs Departure Mechanisms

Mechanisms by which pathogens enter or exit the host.

Transmembrane Proteins

Proteins involved in the entry and exit of viruses into host cells.

Viral Entry Mechanisms

Mechanisms by which viruses enter host cells.

Fusion

Viral entry mechanism that requires an envelope containing the plasma membrane.

Endocytosis

Viral entry mechanism that involves active transport.

Viral Exit Mechanisms

Mechanisms by which viruses exit host cells.

Humoral Immunity

Immune response mediated by B lymphocytes or B cells.

B Cells

Lymphocytes involved in humoral immunity.