Age of Exploration, Amerindian Civilizations, and Scientific Revolution/Enlightment Study Guide

Geocentric Theory

The ancient theory, supported by the Church for centuries, that Earth is the center of the universe and all heavenly bodies revolve around it.

Heliocentric Theory

The scientific theory that the sun is at the center of the solar system and Earth and other planets orbit around it.

Social Contract (Idea)

The belief that people willingly give some freedoms to a government in exchange for protection, laws, and social order.

Philosophers

Thinkers who use reason and logic to study ideas about government, society, knowledge, ethics, and human nature.

Natural Rights

Basic rights all humans are born with, including life, liberty, and property, which governments should protect.

Separation of Powers

A system that divides government into branches with different powers to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Scientific Method

A step-by-step process used by scientists to solve problems through observation, experimentation, data collection, and conclusions.

Caravel

Small, fast European sailing ship developed by the Portuguese that was ideal for long ocean voyages and exploration.

Astrolabe

Navigation tool used by sailors to measure the angle of stars and help determine location at sea.

Conquistador

Spanish soldier and explorer who conquered lands in the Americas, including the Aztec and Inca Empires.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases, people, and ideas between Europe, Africa, and the Americas after Columbus's voyages.

Capitalism

Economic system in which businesses and property are privately owned and people compete to make profits in a free market.

Mercantilism

Economic system where colonies existed to benefit the mother country by providing raw materials and increasing national wealth.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer who sailed across the Atlantic in 1492 and reached the Americas while searching for a westward route to Asia.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer who became the first European to reach India by sea by sailing around the southern tip of Africa.

Olmec

The earliest major civilization in Mesoamerica, known for massive stone heads and influencing later civilizations like the Maya and Aztecs.

San Lorenzo

One of the most important Olmec cities, serving as a political and religious center in present-day Mexico.

Zapotec

Mesoamerican civilization known for developing writing systems, calendars, and the city of Monte Albán in southern Mexico.

Monte Albán

The capital city of the Zapotec civilization, famous for temples, pyramids, and advanced urban planning.

Chavin, Nazca, and Moche

Early South American civilizations known for achievements in art, irrigation, pottery, and large religious centers before the Inca.

Andes Mountains

Long mountain range along western South America where the Inca civilization developed and built roads and cities.

Aztecs

Powerful empire in central Mexico known for warfare, tribute systems, and the capital city of Tenochtitlan before Spanish conquest.

Sun God

Important deity worshipped by civilizations like the Aztecs and Inca, often connected to agriculture, power, and sacrifices.

Tenochtitlan

Capital city of the Aztec Empire, built on islands in Lake Texcoco and later became present-day Mexico City.

Maya

Mesoamerican civilization known for advanced achievements in astronomy, mathematics, writing, calendars, and pyramid construction.

Inca

Large South American empire centered in Peru, known for advanced roads, terraces, engineering, and the city of Machu Picchu.

John Locke

Enlightenment thinker who argued that governments exist to protect natural rights and can be overthrown if they fail.

Thomas Hobbes

Philosopher who believed people are naturally selfish and need a strong government to maintain peace and order.

Leviathan

Influential book by Hobbes arguing that a powerful ruler is necessary to prevent chaos and violence in society.

Voltaire

French writer and philosopher who defended freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and separation of church and state.

Montesquieu

Enlightenment thinker who developed the idea of separation of powers within government to protect liberty.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Philosopher who believed governments should be based on the will of the people and direct participation by citizens.

The Social Contract

Rousseau's book arguing that government gets its authority from the consent of the governed.

Cesare Beccaria

Enlightenment thinker who argued against torture and cruel punishments and supported fair justice systems.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Early advocate for women's rights who argued that women deserve education and equality with men.

René Descartes

Thinker who emphasized reason and skepticism and is famous for the statement 'I think, therefore I am.'

Johannes Kepler

Scientist who discovered that planets orbit the sun in elliptical paths rather than perfect circles.

Galileo Galilei

Scientist who improved the telescope, observed space, and strongly supported the heliocentric theory.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Astronomer who first proposed the heliocentric theory, challenging the long-accepted geocentric model.

Tycho Brahe

Astronomer who made extremely accurate observations of planets and stars before the invention of the telescope.

Francis Bacon

Philosopher who promoted experimentation, observation, and the use of the scientific method in research.

Paris

Major center of Enlightenment thought where philosophers gathered to discuss science, politics, and human rights.

Isaac Newton

Scientist who explained gravity and the laws of motion, greatly influencing modern physics and science.

Zacharias Janssen

Dutch inventor often credited with helping create the first compound microscope.

Evangelista Torricelli

Italian scientist who invented the barometer, an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit

Physicist who developed the Fahrenheit temperature scale and improved thermometer technology.

Anders Celsius

Swedish astronomer who created the Celsius temperature scale used widely around the world today.

Andreas Vesalius

Scientist who improved the study of human anatomy through detailed dissections and accurate medical drawings.

Edward Jenner

Doctor who created the first successful vaccine by developing protection against smallpox.

Zheng He

Chinese admiral who led massive naval expeditions across the Indian Ocean during the Ming Dynasty.

Robert Boyle

Chemist known for Boyle's Law, which explains the relationship between pressure and volume in gases.

Scientific Revolution

A period during the 1500s and 1600s when new discoveries in science and astronomy changed how people understood the world.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement that emphasized reason, science, individual rights, and questioning traditional authority and government.

God, gold, and glory

The three major motives for European exploration: spreading Christianity, gaining wealth, and achieving national power and fame.

School of Navigation

Portuguese center for learning navigation, mapmaking, and sailing techniques founded to improve exploration efforts.

Bartolomeu Dias

Portuguese explorer who became the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope.

French and Indian War

War fought between Britain and France in North America that ended with Britain gaining large amounts of territory.

Atlantic Slave Trade

System in which millions of Africans were forcibly taken across the Atlantic Ocean and sold into slavery in the Americas.

What did old science rely on?

Ancient beliefs and Church teachings.

What did new science emphasize?

Observation, experimentation, mathematics, and questioning traditional ideas.

How did the views of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke differ?

Hobbes believed in a strong ruler for order; Locke believed in protecting natural rights and the right to overthrow failing governments.

What were some major ideas of the Enlightenment?

Reason, natural rights, freedom, and separation of powers.

What influenced revolutions and modern democratic governments?

The ideas of Enlightenment thinkers.

What caused the Scientific Revolution?

The Renaissance, new inventions, exploration, and questioning traditional beliefs.

What were the effects of the Scientific Revolution?

Changed views of the universe, weakened trust in authority, and led to advances in medicine, technology, and learning.

How did the Scientific Revolution influence the Enlightenment?

It inspired Enlightenment thinkers to apply reason and observation to government, society, and human rights.

What were the causes of the Age of Exploration?

Desire for new trade routes, wealth, spreading Christianity, and advances in navigation.

What were the effects of the Age of Exploration?

Colonization, global trade, cultural exchange, spread of diseases, and growth of slavery and European empires.

Why did Portugal become the leading country for exploration?

Portugal's location, skilled sailors, support from Prince Henry, and advances in navigation.

What was the Triangle Trade?

A trade network linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas involving goods, enslaved people, and raw materials.