midterm 2 sociology

social constructs

A concept that humans invented and gave meaning to in order to understand or justify some dimension of the social world. Social constructs feel 'real' and have real consequences, but they are not natural, innate, or universal — they vary across time, place, historical context, and who is doing the classifying.

race

human created system to classify  AND stratify groups of people based mostly on skin tone 

evidence that race is a social consturct

Historical context — who counts as 'white' has changed throughout U.S. history • Time — racial categories on the U.S. census have changed repeatedly over decades • Place — the same person can be classified as a different race in different countries (e.g., Brazil vs. U.S.) • Who's classifying — prior to the 1960s, the census chose people's race; Tiger Woods labeled 'Black golfer' but self-identified as Asian

ethinicity

common culture, religion, history, or ancestry shared by a group of people

-also considered a social construction

what are the markers that prove if something is a social contsruct

Evidence something is a social construct: It changes across — time, place, historical context, and classifiers (who's doing the labeling).

example that shows that race is constrcucted

No gene for race; racial categories shift by census era, country, & who classifies

social constructionist view of race

-centered on a debate about observable differences

No gene for race — debunks race science; no evidence of innate racial superiority/inferiority

• Observable differences DO exist, but sociologists argue they stem from: environment, social structure (rules & resources), cultural practices, child-rearing & socialization — NOT innate biology

• Social constructionist view does NOT deny difference; it asks us to be: – Critical of origins of difference – Vigilant about meaning/value we attach to difference – Aware of perceptions and actions when we encounter difference

Baluran Perceptions and Actions to Race and Ethinciity

perceptions; implict, explicti bias, prejudice, stereotypes

action; discrimination

perception + action: racism, institutional racism

Baluran Racial typicality

The degree to which someone is perceived to possess physical, behavioral, or cultural characteristics commonly associated with a specific racial/ethnic group

Baluran’s boundary-making process

Social process determining who is and isn't perceived as 'normal' within a group

Connection to W8: Baluran's boundary-making process mirrors Becker's deviant labeling — both show how institutional actors (police) selectively apply labels based on race, class, and gender status characteristics.

The boundary-making process is essentially Becker's labeling in action within a racial context

Balurans defintion of Bias (explicit and implicit)

Perception

or the tendency to view things in a particular way, regardless of the details of the specific situation

explicit; subconscious association our minds make between seemingly unrelated things. Engrained in all, and often formed early through socialization & media exposure

implicit: associations that we are openly and consciously aware of

Balurans defintion of stereotypes

Perception, Widely-shared perceptions about characteristics of group members; fuel both bias types

Balurans defintion of prejudice

Perception, Preconceived, usually negative beliefs not based on evidence; grows when another group feels like a threat,

Balurans defintion of discrimination

Action, Unjust treatment of different groups of people

Balurans defintion of Racism

Perception + Action, Prejudice + Discrimination based on belief of racial inferiority/superiority

Balurans defintion of Instiutional racism

Perception + Action Core institutions embedded with racial biases that reproduce racial inequality

Institutional racism

The ways that core institutions are embedded with racial biases and practices that reproduce racial inequality.

Key instituional racism examples from documentary ‘13th’

Racial disparities throughout the criminal justice system

• The War on Drugs and racially unequal sentencing (crack vs. powder cocaine)

• How law and policy can encode racial bias at a systemic level

Sex, Gender, Gender identity and Gender expression (what are they how are they different from eachother)

Sex: Biological/physiological characteristics of males and females. Primary sex characteristics: reproductive organs, chromosomes, hormones. Secondary sex characteristics: breast development, facial hair.

Gender: Socially constructed characteristics associated with being a woman and a man (e.g., girls and the color pink).

Gender identity: A person's internal sense of being a man/boy, woman/girl, or anywhere else on the gender spectrum.

Gender expression: External manifestation of one's gender identity through personality, appearance, and behavior; described in terms of masculinity and femininity

Cisgender, Transgender, nonbinary

Cisgender: Sex assignment at birth aligns with gender identity. Transgender: Umbrella term for when sex assignment at birth is unaligned with internal sense of gender identity. Trans-man: assigned female at birth, identifies as man. Trans-woman: assigned male at birth, identifies as woman. ‘

Gender nonbinary: Identifying gender as falling outside the binary categories of man and woman

Gender socialization

• process by which individuals learn and internalize norms, behaviors, attitudes, and expectations associated with gender identities

• People learn through teachers and reinforcers called agents of socialization

Doing gender

Performing actions that produce gender; held accountable by others for performance

Failure to perform gender 'correctly' has social consequences: stigma, rejection, policing

Connection to Goffman's Dramaturgy (W7 Sexuality): The logic is identical — we perform identity for an audience and manage impressions. Front stage/back stage, impression management, saving face.

Agents of socialization

They are the mechanism through which ALL socially constructed norms are internalized.

Family • Education • Peer groups • Mass media • Religion • Workplace

sexism (perception or action based)

Prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another (often informed by stereotypes). PERCEPTION-based.

gender discrimination

Unequal or unfair treatment of individuals based on gender identity, sex, or expression. ACTION-based.

-sexism underlies gender discrimination, just as prejudice underlies discrimination

structural functionalism (parsons) how does he define gender inequality

-what does he say is the historical arguement, the social change and the critique that comes with it

Gender inequality = necessary & complementary division of labor for social stability

historical arguement; Men hunted/gathered, women domestic = functional given women's physical constraints during pregnancy

social change; When element no longer serves its function, it adapts → change

critique: Ignores operation of power; ignores harm to individuals (women)

conflict theory (marx) how does he define gender inequality.

-what does he say is the historical arguement, the social change and the critique that comes with it

core view; Men (power-dominant) create patriarchal structures to maintain privilege over women

historical arguement; Post-WWII: Women pushed back into home via layoffs, 'happy housewife' media, pink-collar jobs

social change: Conflict inherent; through struggle the subordinate group eventually wins → change

critique; Destabilizes the 'complementary' framing; forces us to see gendered hierarch

Darvin paper (what was it about, what did it highlight)

Women athletes face role conflict: expected to perform athletic excellence (masculine-coded) AND maintain femininity (feminine-coded) simultaneously — competing gender expectations embedded in institutional sports culture

what is the main claim about the development of sexuality

Not purely biological — impossible to understand without social life. Influenced by both biology and social life, but sociologists emphasize the social dimension.

Yucel paper (what was it about, what did it highlight)

Women's basketball facilities unequal to men's for years • S.F. explanation: Men's basketball = higher revenue → served NCAA's functional need → women's game lower priority • Conflict Theory explanation: Male-dominated NCAA structured resources to maintain dominance; eventual inclusion = result of public struggle (social media exposure)

sexual orientation

Enduring pattern of sexual and/or romantic desires for, and relationships with, people of the other sex, same sex, or both.

heteronormativity

The belief and practice that heterosexuality is the only normal sexual orientation. Undergirded by uneven power distribution.

Heteronormativity is to sexuality what patriarchy is to gender — both are institutional structures built on uneven power that normalize one group over another.

Kinsey Scale

Early empirical data on sexuality as a spectrum

• Key finding: Most people fall somewhere between exclusively hetero/homosexual

• Sexual behavior, thoughts, and feelings (B, T, F) toward same/opposite sex are NOT always consistent across time

• B, T, F (Behavior, Attraction/Thoughts, Identity) do not always align with each other

• Pop culture suggests people distinguish: what they DO (behavior) vs. FEEL (attraction) vs. IDENTIFY as (identity)

Silva and normative masculitnity

Societal expectations and roles describing how 'men' should act, think, and feel

findings of the silva paper

nterviews with 19 white, rural, straight-identified men who have sex with men (MSM)

• Key finding 1: MSM engage in interpretive work ('helpin' a buddy out') to see behavior as consistent with normative masculinity Sociology Study Guide · W6–W9 · Page 8

• Key finding 2: Extensive boundary drawing to distance from gay and/or feminine men

• Rurality: geographic isolation reinforces heteronormative norms and limits exposure to alternative identities

• Connects to: social construction, socialization, sexuality as B/T/F and fluid, heteronormativity, intersectionality

connection of goffman’s dramaturgy to sexuality

-look at “doing gender” definition

Deviance (what is it an example of)

Any behavior, belief, or condition that violates cultural norms and societal expectations.

What constitutes deviance varies across time, place, and situational context → deviance = social construction.

-example of social construction

What is Becker’s Labeliing Theory believe in about deviance

what is the labeling theory

No inherent deviance. Deviance is a product of how society reacts to people who engage in certain behaviors

labeling theory; a person's identity and behavior are heavily influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them, also a sociological theory that explains how being labeled by others can shape a person’s identity and behavior.

Pre-becker perspective on deviance (positivism)

'Deviant people' possess identifiable characteristics differentiating them from 'normal' people → research focused on motivations of deviant people.

According to Becker, how do social groups create deviance

• 1. Make rules

• 2. Apply those rules to particular people

• 3. Label them as 'deviant' when they break them (the reaction) A person/behavior is only deviant because it is successfully labeled as such.

When does a label that can classify someone as deviant depend on?

context+ people involved

1. Context: • Same behavior (e.g., nudity) can be deviant or non-deviant depending on social context

2. People involved

— the person committing the behavior: • Two people can commit the same act but receive different labels

— the person labeling (Moral Entrepreneurs) and the Status characteristics: Race, class, gender, nationality — predict how and to whom labels will be applied

Moral entrepeneuars (Becker)

Rule creators and rule enforcers who manufacture norms and laws to impose their definitions of 'right and wrong' on everyone else.

• depending on the moral entrepeuanr, the labeling of deviant behavior can vary

rule creators (becker)

-a major type of moral entrepeunar

Driven by ethical convictions;

• Tactics: lobbying politicians to criminalize/regulate behavior, inciting public moral outrage

rule enfrocers

-influential role in moral entrepeneurs

• Motivated by maintaining respect for rules and authority of the institution, which justifies employment (Examples: police, judges, regulatory agencies)

• High discretion = selective application of labels

how is deviant labels connected to a self fulfilling prophecy

-what concept is this connected to?

Deviant labels create deviant identities — people come to view themselves as society does. Contributes to self-fulfilling prophecy.

Self-fulfilling prophecy: Internalized deviant identity prompts deviant behavior, confirming the original label.

Explicitly connected to Cooley's Looking Glass Self: we develop self-concept from how we believe others perceive us. If others consistently label you deviant, you start to see yourself that way.

Deviant career (Becker)

step-by-step process through which people progressively adopt and identify with a deviant label; occasional rule-breaking → long-term involvement in 'unacceptable' behaviors.

what are the steps of the development of a deviant label (steps of a deviant career)

step 1; labeling; Individual publicly labeled as deviant (caught, sanctioned). Rejected by social groups and institutions.

step 2: Deviance Amplification; Labeled person engages in MORE deviant acts. Informal pathway: alienation/stigma. Formal pathway: criminal record blocks legitimate opportunities.

step 3:Master Status; Label becomes the defining feature of identity. Shapes others' perception AND self-perception (Looking Glass Self). Ex: 'Criminal' overrides all other identities.

step 4: Join Deviant Group; Surrounded by others labeled deviant → confirm and accept deviant identity. Deviant subculture forms with own beliefs/values. Self-fulfilling prophecy intensifies.

mental gymnastics

• connection to Mohamed & Fritsvold (2009) — Dorm Room Dealers

Rationalizing and neutralizing illegal behavior to maintain a non-deviant self-identity.

Dealers AVOID the deviant career using race/class privilege + prestigious environment (white, middle-upper-class, private college)

• They are not publicly labeled at Step 1 → the entire deviant career is short-circuited

• Master status = student/college kid, NOT drug dealer

Punishment, what is the important distinction to make about punishment

penalties imposed by the state for breaking the law\

Criminal behavior ≠ always deviant and deviant behavior ≠ always criminal — overlapping but NOT synonymous Connection to W8 Deviance: Deviance = violating social norms; crime = violating law. The Dorm Room Dealers commit crimes but avoid the deviant identity. Punishment is about law-breaking, not just norm-breaking.

formal punishment

State institutions (jails) and officials (police)

social sanctions

Shaming, ostracizing — NOT formal punishment

criminal behavior does not always equal….

deviant behavior, and deviant behavior does not always mean criminal, it can be overlapping but not synonymous

utilitarianism (orientation/perspective, and key idea)

Looks FORWARD; Punishment prevents future action for the greatest good for the greatest number

Retribution (orientation/perspective, and key idea)

Looks BACKWARD; Punishment is deserved for past action — 'just deserts'

what is the retributionary stance on punishment (stance, critiques)

Stance: People who break the law deserve punishment — no other reason needed

Example: Code of Hammurabi — 'eye for an eye'

Critiques: Proportionality hard to define; seriousness of crime is subjective (marijuana: Boomer vs. Gen Z); whose moral judgment counts?

what is the detterance stance on punishment (stance, critiques)

Stance: Punish to deter future law-breaking. Requires: cost > benefit + certainty + immediacy. Specific: targets individual. General: targets broader public.

Example: Specific: individual sentencing. General: public executions as warning

Critiques: Could justify punishing innocent people (Roman decimation); limited real-world evidence; falsely assumes rationalit

what is the Incapacitation stance on punishment (stance, critiques)

Stance: Punish by removing/reducing opportunity for crimes. Primary form: incarceration. Others: chemical castration, license revocation, death penalty.

Example: Prison, house arrest, e-carceration

Critiques: Immoral; cost-ineffective for long-term; harms families of incarcerated

what is the Rehabilitation stance on punishment (stance, critiques)

Stance: Punish to provide treatment & training so offender returns as law-abiding. Deficit model: crime stems from individual deficiency.

Example: Mandated therapy, drug treatment programs Critiques: Often forced (free will?); frames subjects as 'patients'; hard to measure 'rehabilitated' status

what is the Restorative Justice stance on punishment (stance, critiques)

Stance: Punish to repair harm and restore community. Crime = community broken, not just individual. Justice when harm repaired AND accountability taken.

Example: Vandals cleaning graffiti; restorative justice circles Critiques: Unsuitable for some offenses; can retraumatize victims; victim betrayal risk; hard to measure accountability; resource-intensive

connection of dorm room dealers to punishment system (social and symbolic capital)

Symbolic capital: Social prestige and status that confers advantages — here, protects from punishment.

Social capital: Networks and connections that confer advantages.

• Dealers perceive risk as low and act recklessly/nonchalantly

• Key argument: Their race-class privilege (white, middle-upper-class) + prestigious environment = escape from War on Drugs consequences that devastate Black and Brown, low-income adults

• Protection factors: symbolic & social capital, lack of violence, 'small fish' status

what makes a family?

Family is NOT a rigid, unchanging institution. It is a dynamic, constantly evolving social institution — both personal and shaped by social structure.

what are the components than can constitute “family”

Blood relation • Marriage • Law (e.g., adoption) • Shared dwelling • Affinity/emotional connection • Shared resources (pooling finances, tax credits as a unit)

Coontz, what was his perspective on the functions marriage served

Organized production & distribution of goods and people; set political, economic, military alliances; coordinated gender-based division of labor; orchestrated personal rights & obligations (sexual relations, property inheritance).

applying the concept of structural functionalism to how marriage became patriachal marriage, and explaining the shift away from patriachal marriage

shift to: Marriage served economic/political functions → sustained prosperity, expanding 1960s economy, birth control pill, 1970s inflation allowed people to access those functions WITHOUT marriage → marriage adapts to new function (love) to survive

shift away; When an element no longer serves a function, it is discarded or adapts; hence social change

applying the concept of conflict theory to how marriage became patriachal marriage, and explaining the shift away from patriachal marriage

shift to: Marriage was patriarchal because women were economically & legally dependent (no loans in own name, 'head and master' laws, unequal pay, marital rape legal)

shift away; Women's resistance & struggle (feminist movement, workforce entry, legal advocacy) challenged patriarchal structure → subordinate group eventually won, making marriage less patriarchal → social change through conflict

how do we respond to gender socialization, according to west and zimmerman

Answer: by doing gender (according to West and Zimmerman)

• We perform actions that produce gender

• We do gender in interactions with other people

We do it knowing that we will be judged by others and held accountable for our gender performance

structural functionalism

• a sociological theory that asserts that society operates like a living organism, and each part (organ) contributes to the survival of the whole (body)

  • This perspective considers stratification to be necessary for a stable, functional society

• Structural functionalists may view gender inequality as a necessary and complementary division of labor for social stability

conflict theory

• A sociological theory that sees society as in perpetual state of conflict due to competition for limited resources.

• Given conditions, social order maintained through power domination, with power-dominant groups (men) creating structures (patriarchy) to maintain their privilege over oppressed groups (women)

conflict theory vs functionalism

• Strength of conflict theory: acknowledges power and harm in divisions of roles

  • Functionalism ignores operation of power AND that what is “functional” for society can be harmful for individuals/groups. Acknowledging harm pokes holes in complementary perspective, and forces us to see and perhaps take issue with gendered hierarchy.

example of Deviant Career of a teenager who shoplifts (labeling, amplification , master status, join a deviant group)

• Step 1: Labeling: a teenager is caught stealing makeup from a store. They are publicly labeled as a thief.

• Step 2: Deviance Amplification: the labeled teen engages in more deviant acts: they start stealing food from other stores and money from parents’ wallets.

• Step 3: Development of a Master Status: label of “thief” becomes a defining feature of the teen’s identity:

  • Shapes other people’s perception: parents, friends, store employees view them as a thief

  • Shapes the labeled person’s self-perception: teen sees themselves as someone who steals

• Step 4: Join organized deviant group: teen spends time with a group of other teens who regularly steal and engage in other deviant behaviors 

  • They find acceptance and support for their deviant behavior and identity

  • In this group, the teen is more likely to see self as deviant and act in terms of this self-concept = Self-fulfilling prophecy

what are the 4 pieces of evidenc ethat proves that race is social constrcut

Historical context — who counts as 'white' has changed throughout U.S. history • Time — racial categories on the U.S. census have changed repeatedly over decades • Place — the same person can be classified as a different race in different countries (e.g., Brazil vs. U.S.) • Who's classifying — prior to the 1960s, the census chose people's race; Tiger Woods labeled 'Black golfer' but self-identified as Asian