Modules 9-10

Problem Solving

• needs a goal

• subgoals to help arrive to end goal

Types of Thinking

1. Directed Thinking

2. Undirected Thinking

3. Reproductive Thinking

4. Productive Thinking

Directive Thinking

• locked in

• goal oriented

• clear defined goal

Undirected Thinking

• daydreaming

• distracted

• mind wandering

Reproductive Thinking

• repeating proven strats

Productive Thinking

• creativity

• coming up with a new solution

Types of Problems

1. Well-defined problems

2. Ill-defined problems

Well-Defined Problems

• goal identified

• subgoals identified

• operators (things that move u thru subgoals)

• direct and reproductive thinking

Ill-Defined Problems

• nothing is clearly defined

• dioes’t know how to get to goal

• undirected and productive thinking

Thondrike Law of Effect

when an action brings a reward it is stamped into brain (and repeated despite failure)

Kohler 1925

• studied chimps

• created problems that required productive thinking

Problem solving requires what in order to first begin solving it?

a mental representation (repping in right way is crucial)

Problem Solving Methods

1. Algorithm (layed out steps)

2. Heuristics (quick fix)

Meta-Cognition

monitoring cog processes

Right Hemisphere

process visual/spatial info

Left Hemisphere

process verbal info

Hayes 1989, Creative Products

1. Novel

2. Useful

3. Show of Talent

Creativity Process

1. Preparation (studying/learning)

2. Incubation (putting issue aside)

3. Illumination (aha!)

4. Verification (evaluating solution)

Aha! Experience found where in brain?

right anterior temporal gyrus

Syllogistic Reasoning (Decision Making)

• assumes premises r true to make a conclusion

• doesn’t use prior knowledge (can be wrong)

  • focus on if the conclusion is right from the premises not if the meaning is right

Syllogistic Reasoning example

All A r B (All men r elephants)

All B r C (Some elephants r plants)

All A r C (Some men r plants)

Euler Circles

circles that show relationships between diff things

A Valid Deductive Conclusion

is true if the major and minor premises r true (3 step structure)

Working Memory (cog restraint to syllogism)

• limits # of alternatives considered

• oversimplification

Illicit Conversion

• All A r B does not mean all B r A

Belief Bias

things r more valid if they fit within beliefs (over logic)

• “I agree with the conclusion, so the argument must be good.”

Confirmation Bias

tendency to search for info that affirms your beliefs while ignoring other info

• “I look for evidence that supports my view.”

Myside Bias

evaluating based on own beliefs

• “I argue only for my side and downplay the other.”

Positivity Bias

we evaluate others more positively than negatively

False Peculiarity

believing u r the only one with a desirable quality

False Consensus

thinking others agree w u

Expected Utility Theory

choose what gives the highest average “value” when considering both outcomes and their probabilities

• Think about how good or bad each outcome is (its “utility”)

• Choose the option with the highest expected utility (best average result)

Subjective Utility

subjective/ personal assessment of utility (value)

do ppl prefer small but certain win over large but uncertain win?

small but certain win

Subjective Utility Curve

• subjective utility increases slowly for gains

  • zero to a small gain > bigger to bigger gains

• subjective utility decreases rapidly for loses

  • Initial losses are the most painful

Subjective Probability

how likely u think smth will happen (based off experience not data)

how do we judge Subjective Probability?

• long term memory

• frequency of events

High probability events tend to be….

underestimated

low probability events tend to be….

overestimated

Representativeness heuristic

judge probability based on stereotypes

Gambler’s Fallacy

wing belief that future events r dependent on past ones (they r independent)

• “After hitting red three times in a row, it's got to be black this time”

Fast and Frugal Heuristic

less is more info when making decision (familiarity)

System 1 Reasoning

unconscious, effortless, automatic, hot emotions

System 2 Reasoning

conscious, effortful, controlled

positive emotions encourage…

• creativity

• trust in others

• heightened risk aversion

• intuitive decision making

fear encourages…

• catastrophizing

• heightened risk aversion

sadness encourages….

• more analyzing

• indecisiveness

anger encourages…

• overconfidence

• no risk aversion

Somatic Marker Hypothesis

gut feeling/ intuition