History exam 3
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77 Terms
Allen Ginsberg
Central Beat Generation poet who challenged conformity, capitalism, and authority through emotional and political poetry.
He helped define 1960s counterculture by promoting individuality and anti-authoritarian ideas.
His work often focused on alienation, sexuality, and social criticism. He became a major voice in free speech debates.
Beat Generation
Post-WWII literary movement rejecting traditional American values like conformity and materialism.
Writers emphasized freedom, individuality, and experimentation in style and life. It influenced 1960s counterculture and protest movements. Major figures include Ginsberg, Kerouac, and Burroughs.
Howl
Ginsberg poem criticizing industrial society, materialism, and social repression.
It also addressed mental illness, sexuality, and alienation. '
The poem became highly controversial due to its content. It is now considered a major work of American literature and protest poetry.
Howl Obscenity Trial
Court case deciding whether Howl was obscene or protected speech. The court ruled it was protected under the First Amendment. This expanded freedom of expression in literature. It set an important precedent for artistic and political speech.
Ginsberg Style
Free verse poetry with no strict structure or rhyme.
He used emotional, spoken performance style. His work mixed personal experience with political critique. It was meant to feel raw and direct.
De jure segregation
Segregation enforced by law, especially through Jim Crow laws in the South.
It legally separated Black and white Americans in schools and public spaces. It was challenged and overturned through court rulings. It represented formal, legalized racism.
De facto segregation
Segregation that exists through social and economic conditions rather than laws.
It continues through housing patterns, school zoning, and inequality. It persisted even after legal segregation ended. It is harder to eliminate than de jure segregation.
NAACP strategy
Civil rights strategy focused on legal challenges in courts.
It targeted segregation using the 14th Amendment’s equal protection clause. The NAACP built gradual victories over time. This strategy led to major Supreme Court cases like Brown v. Board.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Supreme Court case that established “separate but equal.”
It legalized segregation for decades. In practice, facilities for Black Americans were unequal and underfunded. It became the legal foundation for Jim Crow laws.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Supreme Court ruling that declared school segregation unconstitutional.
It overturned Plessy v. Ferguson.
The Court said segregation harmed Black children psychologically. It faced strong resistance in the South despite the ruling.
“All deliberate speed”
Phrase from Brown v. Board requiring integration to happen gradually. It did not give a clear deadline. Southern states used it to delay desegregation. It weakened enforcement of civil rights.
White Citizens’ Councils
Groups in the South that opposed desegregation.
They used economic pressure and political influence instead of violence. Their goal was to preserve segregation after Brown. They were part of “massive resistance.”
Little Rock Nine
Nine Black students who integrated Central High School in Arkansas. They faced violent opposition and required federal troops for protection. The crisis showed strong resistance to integration. It demonstrated the federal government’s role in enforcing civil rights.
Rosa Parks
Civil rights activist who refused to give up her seat on a segregated bus. Her arrest sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The boycott became a major civil rights victory. It helped launch Martin Luther King Jr.’s leadership.
SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference)
Civil rights organization led by Martin Luther King Jr. It promoted nonviolent protest and direct action. It organized marches and demonstrations across the South. It played a major role in the Civil Rights Movement.
Civil Rights Act (1964)
Law that outlawed segregation in public places. It also banned employment discrimination. It was one of the most important civil rights laws in U.S. history. It expanded federal enforcement of equality.
Voting Rights Act (1965)
Law that protected Black voting rights. It banned literacy tests and discriminatory practices. It allowed federal oversight of elections in the South. It greatly increased voter participation.
1960 Election
First U.S. election influenced heavily by television. JFK and Nixon debated live on TV. JFK appeared more confident and polished. This helped JFK win a close election.
JFK image strategy
JFK appeared young, confident, and energetic. Nixon looked tired and unprepared during televised debates. Image played a major role in voter perception. It changed how political campaigns were run.
New Frontier
JFK’s domestic and foreign policy agenda.
It focused on economic growth, space exploration, and Cold War strength. It promoted modernization and innovation. Many goals were limited by political opposition.
Berlin Wall (1961)
Wall built by East Germany dividing East and West Berlin.
It prevented citizens from escaping to the West. It symbolized Cold War division. It increased tensions between superpowers.
Bay of Pigs (1961)
Failed U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba.
The goal was to overthrow Fidel Castro. It ended in disaster for the Kennedy administration. It pushed Cuba closer to the Soviet Union.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
13-day nuclear standoff between the U.S. and Soviet Union.
Soviets placed missiles in Cuba near the U.S. Kennedy responded with a naval blockade. It ended with Soviet withdrawal and avoided nuclear war.
Vietnam War
Cold War conflict between communist North Vietnam and U.S.-backed South Vietnam. The U.S. tried to stop the spread of communism. It became long, costly, and unpopular. It ended with U.S. withdrawal and Vietnam reunification under communism.
Viet Cong
Communist guerrilla fighters in South Vietnam.
They used jungle warfare and surprise attacks. They were supported by North Vietnam. They were a major challenge for U.S. forces.
Gulf of Tonkin resoltution
The resolution of the gulf of Tonkin gave the president power to escalate Vietnam War. It was based on disputed reports of attacks. It led to major U.S. military escalation. It expanded presidential war powers.
Tet Offensive (1968)
Surprise North Vietnamese attack across South Vietnam. It was a military failure for North Vietnam but a psychological victory. It showed the war was far from over. It reduced U.S. public support.
Search and Destroy
U.S. military strategy in Vietnam. Soldiers searched jungles for enemy forces and destroyed them. It caused high civilian casualties. It contributed to negative public opinion.
Vietnamization
Nixon policy of transferring war responsibility to South Vietnam.
It reduced U.S. troop involvement. It was meant to end the war gradually. It aimed to avoid the appearance of defeat.
Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ)
President who expanded the Great Society and escalated the Vietnam War.
He increased U.S. involvement after Gulf of Tonkin. His presidency was shaped by domestic reform and foreign conflict. Vietnam overshadowed his domestic achievements.
Great Society
Domestic program aimed at reducing poverty and inequality.
It expanded healthcare, education, and housing programs. It included Medicaid and environmental laws. Vietnam War spending limited its success.
Gulf of Tonkin
Gulf of Tonkin Incident – a 1964 event where the U.S. claimed North Vietnamese attacks on its ships, leading to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which expanded U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
Antiwar movement
Protest movement against Vietnam War. Included students, activists, and veterans. Used marches, sit-ins, and demonstrations. It influenced public opinion and policy.
Hippies
Counterculture group rejecting war and materialism.
Promoted peace, freedom, and alternative lifestyles. Centered in places like San Francisco. Connected to broader 1960s cultural change.
Richard Nixon
President who ended U.S. involvement in Vietnam.
Used Southern Strategy and appealed to “silent majority.” Focused on restoring stability.
Faced Watergate scandal later.
Southern Strategy
Political strategy appealing to white Southern voters. Focused on opposition to civil rights changes. Shifted party alignment in the South. Strengthened Republican Party in the region.
Peace with Honor
Nixon plan to withdraw from Vietnam while maintaining U.S. credibility. Aimed to avoid appearing weak. Included gradual troop withdrawal. Did not immediately end fighting.
Stagflation
Economic condition of high inflation and slow growth. Occurred in the 1970s. It was difficult for traditional economic policies to solve. It hurt public confidence in government.
1973 Oil Crisis
Oil embargo by OPEC countries. Caused fuel shortages and rising prices. Hurt the U.S. economy. Contributed to stagflation.
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
Government agency created to regulate pollution. Established under Nixon. Focused on environmental protection. Marked growing environmental awareness.
Cowie Argument
White working class declined economically after the 1970s. They felt abandoned by government and political elites. Their identity shifted toward cultural and social issues. This contributed to modern political polarization.
Farm Crisis (1980s)
Economic collapse in agriculture due to debt and high interest rates. Crop prices fell and land values dropped. Many farms went bankrupt. Rural communities suffered major decline.
“Get big or get out”
Pressure on farmers to expand production or leave farming. Encouraged large-scale industrial agriculture. Increased debt among farmers. Contributed to farm crisis.
Ronald Reagan
President who promoted conservatism, free markets, and optimism.
Focused on reducing government involvement. Became a symbol of modern Republican politics. Increased national confidence after 1970s struggles.
Morning in America
Reagan campaign message promoting national optimism. Emphasized economic recovery and patriotism. Helped shape Reagan’s public image. Became a defining political slogan.
Culture Wars (1980s)
Conflicts over religion, gender, race, and morality. Included debates over media and censorship. Reflected deep political and cultural divisions. Influenced modern political debates.
MTV / Pop Culture Rise
Growth of music television and celebrity culture. Changed how people consumed media. Created cultural controversies over music and content. Increased influence of entertainment in politics.
Newt Gingrich
Politician who promoted aggressive, confrontational politics.
Encouraged attacking opponents instead of compromise. Used media strategies to shape messaging. Increased political polarization.
Political Polarization
Increasing division between political parties. Reduced cooperation and compromise. Politics became more conflict-driven. Still shapes modern American government.
End of U.S. involvement in Vietnam (1973)
U.S. withdrew troops
War continued without U.S.
Led to fall of Saigon
Fall of Saigon (1975)
North Vietnam captured South
End of Vietnam War
U.S. failure to stop communism
“Ghost of Vietnam”
Lasting fear of war involvement
Distrust in government
Affected future foreign policy
Watergate Sandal
Nixon involved in cover-up
Political corruption
Loss of public trust
Massive Resistance
A movement in the 1950s–60s led by Southern politicians to resist school desegregation after Brown v. Board of Education by closing schools, cutting funding, and avoiding integration.