AP Psychology Unit 3: Development

Development

The study of physical, cognitive, and social changes across the lifespan.

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate over whether genetics or environment has a greater influence on development.

Stability vs. Change

Debate over whether personality traits stay consistent or change over time.

Continuity vs. Stages

Debate over whether development is gradual or occurs in distinct stages.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching and imitating others.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura’s study showing children imitate aggressive behavior they observe.

Rooting Reflex

Infant reflex causing babies to turn toward a touch near the mouth.

Visual Cliff

Experiment showing infants have depth perception.

Critical Period

Specific time when learning certain skills is easiest or necessary.

Adolescence

Developmental stage marked by puberty and sexual maturation.

Teratogens

Harmful substances that negatively affect prenatal development.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Theory proposing children progress through four stages of thinking.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget stage (birth–2 years) where infants learn through senses and actions.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.

Stranger Anxiety

Fear of unfamiliar people, common in infancy.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget stage (2–7 years) characterized by language use and symbolic thinking but limited logic.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing things from another person’s perspective.

Animism

Belief that inanimate objects have thoughts or feelings.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity stays the same despite changes in appearance.

Centration

Focusing on one aspect of a situation while ignoring others.

Theory of Mind

Ability to understand that others have different thoughts and feelings.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget stage (7–11 years) where children think logically about concrete events.

Reversibility

Understanding that actions can be mentally undone.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget stage (12 years and up) involving abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Abstract Reasoning

Thinking about ideas and concepts not physically present.

Hypothetical Thinking

Reasoning using “if-then” possibilities.

Schema

Mental framework used to organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Adding new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing schemas to fit new information.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Theory emphasizing social interaction and culture in cognitive development.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Difference between what a learner can do alone and with help.

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided to help learning.

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

Person with greater understanding who helps a learner.

Piaget vs. Vygotsky

Piaget emphasized independent stages of development; Vygotsky emphasized social and cultural learning.

Language

Shared system of symbols and rules used to communicate meaning.

Phoneme

Smallest sound unit in language.

Morpheme

Smallest meaningful unit in language.

Semantics

Meaning of language and words.

Syntax

Rules for arranging words into sentences.

Cooing Stage

Early infant sounds that are not recognizable words.

Babbling Stage

Infant stage producing random speech sounds.

One-Word Stage

Language stage using single-word communication.

Telegraphic Speech

Short phrases using mainly important words.

Linguistic Determinism

Theory that language shapes thought.

Noam Chomsky

Psychologist who proposed humans are biologically prepared for language learning.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Innate system for language learning proposed by Chomsky.

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s theory explaining environmental influences on development.

Microsystem

Immediate environments with direct interaction, like family and school.

Mesosystem

Connections between microsystems.

Exosystem

Indirect environmental influences on development.

Macrosystem

Cultural values and societal influences.

Chronosystem

Influence of time and life transitions on development.

Authoritative Parenting

High warmth and high control; considered the most effective parenting style.

Authoritarian Parenting

High control and low warmth; strict and demanding.

Permissive Parenting

High warmth and low control; few rules or limits.

Uninvolved Parenting

Low warmth and low control; disengaged parenting style.

Attachment

Emotional bond between a child and caregiver.

Secure Attachment

Healthy attachment with comfort exploring and trust in caregivers.

Insecure Attachment

Unhealthy attachment involving clinginess, avoidance, or inconsistency.

Avoidant Attachment

Attachment style marked by emotional distance and avoidance.

Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment

Attachment style involving clinginess and fear of abandonment.

Disorganized Attachment

Attachment style with inconsistent and confused behavior.

Separation Anxiety

Distress when separated from caregivers.

Parallel Play

Children play near each other without interacting directly.

Pretend Play

Imaginative play involving role-playing and creativity.

Imaginary Audience

Adolescent belief that others are constantly watching them.

Personal Fable

Belief that one is unique and invulnerable.

Social Clock

Cultural expectations about timing of life events.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Theory describing eight stages of social and emotional development.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Infants learn whether the world is trustworthy.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Toddlers develop independence or self-doubt.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Children learn to take initiative or feel guilty for efforts.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Children develop competence or feel inferior.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescents form identity or experience confusion.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults seek close relationships or experience loneliness.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults contribute to society or feel unproductive.

Integrity vs. Despair

Older adults reflect on life with satisfaction or regret.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Theory describing stages of moral reasoning.

Preconventional Morality

Morality based on avoiding punishment and gaining rewards.

Conventional Morality

Morality focused on social rules and approval.

Postconventional Morality

Morality based on personal ethical principles.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic childhood events that impact later development.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association between stimuli.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that initially causes no response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Stimulus naturally triggering a response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

Initial stage of learning associations in classical conditioning.

Extinction

Weakening of a conditioned response when reinforcement stops.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a delay.

Higher-Order Conditioning

Using a conditioned stimulus to create another conditioned response.

Stimulus Generalization

Responding similarly to related stimuli.

Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to distinguish between similar stimuli.

Habituation

Decreased response to repeated stimulation.

Law of Effect

Thorndike’s principle that rewarded behaviors are repeated.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through rewards and punishments.

B.F. Skinner

Psychologist known for operant conditioning research.

Shaping

Reinforcing gradual steps toward a desired behavior.