Types of Problem Solving and Decision-Making Strategies in Psychology

What are the three basic classes of problems according to Greeno (1978)?

Problems of inducing structure, problems of arrangement, and problems of transformation.

What is an example of a problem of arrangement?

String problems and anagrams.

What skills are suggested by Greeno (1978) for solving arrangement problems?

Fluency in generating possibilities, ability to retrieve possible solution patterns, and knowledge of constraints.

What is an anagram?

A word formed by rearranging the letters of another word, using all the original letters exactly once.

Why is ZUQRAT easier to solve than TAUMER?

ZUQRAT has fewer promising solutions due to English language rules, while TAUMER has a larger problem space.

What are problems of inducing structure?

Problems that require discovering the relations among the components of the problem.

What is an example of an analogy problem?

Sugar : Sweet :: Lemon : Sour.

What is the process involved in solving analogy problems according to Sternberg's model?

Encoding, inference, mapping, and application.

What are problems of transformation?

Problems that require carrying out a sequence of transformations to reach a specific goal.

What is an example of a transformation problem?

The missionaries and cannibals problem or the water jar problem.

What distinguishes well-defined problems from ill-defined problems?

Well-defined problems clearly specify the initial state, goal state, and constraints; ill-defined problems do not.

What did the Gestalt School emphasize about problem solving?

It involves reproductive and productive processes, characterized by insight and restructuring of the problem.

What is insight in problem solving?

A sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem.

What did Maier's two-string problem demonstrate?

It illustrated the concept of insight and the restructuring of a problem.

What is functional fixedness?

The tendency to perceive an item only in its most common function.

What is the water-jug problem used to study?

It studies problem-solving sets and the inflexible use of particular problem-solving techniques.

What is the problem space according to Newell and Simon?

The entire landscape of possible states of the problem, consisting of knowledge states and operators to move between them.

What are mental operators in problem solving?

Processes used to move between knowledge states in the problem space.

What is the Tower of Hanoi problem?

A problem where discs must be moved from one peg to another following specific rules.

What is an algorithm in problem solving?

A method that will always find the solution, though it may be inefficient.

What is the goal state in the Tower of Hanoi problem?

All discs moved to the goal peg following the rules.

What is the initial state in the Tower of Hanoi problem?

The starting position of the discs on the initial peg.

What is the significance of reducing the number of possible states in problem solving?

It helps to efficiently reach the goal state.

What does the term 'search space' refer to?

The subset of the problem space that the problem solver navigates through.

What is the role of heuristics in problem solving?

Heuristics are strategies or approaches used to simplify the problem-solving process.

What is the rule for moving the first disc in the Tower of Hanoi with an even number of discs?

Move the first disc to the middle.

What is the rule for moving the first disc in the Tower of Hanoi with an odd number of discs?

Move the first disc to the right column.

What are mental operators in Newell and Simon's Problem Space?

They are used to find a path between the initial state and the goal state.

What is an algorithm?

A systematic search through the problem space that guarantees a solution if one exists.

What is a heuristic?

A method for reducing the problem space that is usually faster but may not guarantee a solution.

What is means-ends analysis?

A heuristic that involves setting up a goal or subgoal and applying operators to reduce the difference between the current state and the goal.

How does an algorithm solve an anagram?

By generating all possible combinations and checking each one.

What is the disadvantage of using algorithms?

They are time-consuming and exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution.

What is a problem-solving set?

A mental set that can limit the ability to find a solution.

What are unnecessary constraints in problem solving?

Assumptions about constraints that are not actually necessary to solve the problem.

What is representational transfer?

The transfer of a general method, such as using diagrams, to solve different problems.

What is the advantage of using visual aids in problem solving?

They help search through the relevant problem space more effectively.

What is the benefit of forming subgoals in problem solving?

They help reduce the number of alternate paths to the solution.

What is the concept of working backward in problem solving?

Starting at the goal state and working back to the current state can sometimes simplify the process.

What is the significance of changing the representation of a problem?

It can help when initial representations do not lead to progress.

What is an example of using analogy in problem solving?

Solving a current problem by applying the solution from a related problem.

What is the role of long-term memory (LTM) in solving problems by analogy?

It helps the solver remember the solution path of the first problem.

What is the difference between an algorithm and a heuristic?

An algorithm guarantees a solution but is time-consuming, while a heuristic is faster but may not guarantee a solution.

What is the problem-solving strategy of using diagrams?

It involves creating visual representations to aid in understanding and solving problems.

What is the effect of irrelevant information on problem solving?

It can lead to incorrect answers and distract from the necessary information.

How does the doubling of water lilies relate to problem solving?

It illustrates the concept of exponential growth and the importance of understanding the problem's parameters.

In the train problem, what speeds are the trains and the hawk traveling?

Both trains travel at 25 miles per hour, and the hawk flies at 100 miles per hour.

What is a common misconception about numerical information in problem solving?

People often assume that all numerical information is necessary to solve the problem.

What is the significance of studying isomorphic problems?

It helps understand how different representations can affect problem-solving strategies.

What are the limitations of subgoals?

Subgoals are not always obvious and may not be on the solution path.

What is Simon's theory of bounded rationality?

It suggests that human decision-making strategies are simplistic and often yield irrational results due to limited information, cognitive capacity, and time.

What does the additive-difference model involve?

It involves taking the difference between alternatives for each attribute, totaling these difference scores to make a choice based on positive or negative differences.

What is a noncompensatory model in decision making?

A model where undesirable attributes lead to the elimination of alternatives, such as the elimination by aspects model.

What is the elimination by aspects model?

A noncompensatory model that considers one attribute at a time and rejects alternatives that do not meet a criterion for that attribute.

What is the conjunctive model in decision making?

A model where all attributes of an alternative must meet certain criteria before it can be chosen, leading to a satisficing search.

What did Payne (1976) hypothesize about decision-making strategies?

He hypothesized that decision makers change strategies based on the information-processing demands of the task.

What happens to decision-making strategies as the number of alternatives decreases?

Decision makers may shift from noncompensatory models to compensatory models as alternatives are reduced.

What is the role of heuristics in decision making under uncertainty?

Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that simplify decision making but can lead to systematic biases.

What does the availability heuristic refer to?

It refers to making judgments based on how easily examples come to mind, which can lead to incorrect assessments of frequency or probability.

How does the availability heuristic affect perceptions of risk?

It can cause people to overestimate risks, such as fearing flying more than driving, despite flying being statistically safer.

What is the representativeness heuristic?

It is the tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event based on its similarity to other events, often neglecting relevant statistical information.

How does the representativeness heuristic influence decision making?

It can lead to neglecting base-rate information, causing misjudgments about probabilities.

What is base-rate information?

It refers to the relative frequency with which an event occurs in the population.

What is an example of the representativeness heuristic in action?

Estimating that a person described as shy and detail-oriented is more likely to be a librarian than a retail salesperson, despite there being many more retail salespersons.

What is satisficing in decision making?

It refers to choosing the first alternative that meets the necessary criteria rather than the optimal solution.

What are cognitive shortcuts?

They are mental strategies or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making processes.

How can the order of attribute evaluation impact decision making?

More important attributes should be evaluated earlier to avoid eliminating viable alternatives based on less critical criteria.

What is the impact of cognitive load on decision-making strategies?

Increased cognitive load may lead individuals to rely on simpler, noncompensatory models to make decisions.

What is the significance of the phrase 'Life is the sum of all your choices'?

It emphasizes the importance of decision making and the cumulative impact of choices on life outcomes.

What is a common outcome of using the availability heuristic?

It can lead to overestimating the likelihood of dramatic but rare events due to their prominence in memory.

What is the effect of salience on the availability heuristic?

Salient events are more easily recalled, which can skew perceptions of their frequency or likelihood.

What is the relationship between the number of alternatives and decision strategies?

As the number of alternatives decreases, decision makers may switch from noncompensatory to compensatory strategies.

What does it mean to 'satisfice' in decision making?

It means to settle for an acceptable solution rather than the best possible one.

What is the importance of evaluating all attributes in the conjunctive model?

It ensures that all criteria are met before selecting an alternative, potentially leading to a satisfactory choice.

What is the conjunction fallacy?

The mistaken belief that the conjunction of two events (A and B) is more likely than one of the events (A or B).

What experiment is commonly associated with the conjunction fallacy?

The Linda experiment.

What did Fiedler's 1988 study suggest about the conjunction fallacy?

The conjunction fallacy may not hold when questions are framed in terms of frequency rather than probabilities.

Describe Linda's character in the Linda problem.

Linda is 35 years old, outspoken, determined, intelligent, and concerned with issues of equality and social justice.

What is the correct conclusion regarding Linda's likelihood of being a bank teller or a feminist bank teller?

It is incorrect to believe that Linda is more likely to be both a bank teller and a feminist than just a bank teller.

What is the expected value (EV) in decision-making?

A normative model that combines the value of events based on their probabilities to obtain an average value.

How is expected utility (EU) different from expected value?

EU incorporates the subjective value of outcomes, making it a more descriptive model than EV.

What is the framing effect?

The bias in decision-making that occurs due to the way a choice is worded.

What is risk aversion?

The tendency to prefer sure wins over gambles and gambles over sure losses, even when statistically equal.

What is the recognition-primed decision model?

A decision-making model for emergency situations that assumes experienced individuals can make quick decisions based on recognition of the situation.

What is the anchoring effect?

The tendency to rely heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.

What is the illusion of control?

The belief that one can control chance events that are actually random.

What is Bayes' Theorem used for?

To calculate the probability of a hypothesis based on prior knowledge and new evidence.

What is the significance of priors in Bayesian inference?

Priors are the base rates that must be considered to accurately assess probabilities.

What is the difference between subjective probabilities and objective probabilities?

Subjective probabilities are based on personal estimates, while objective probabilities are based on actual data.

What does the term 'subjective expected utility' refer to?

The expected utility calculated using subjective probabilities.

What is the median estimate for the product of numbers 1 to 8?

512.

What is the median estimate for the product of numbers 8 to 1?

2250.

What is the correct product of numbers 1 to 8?

40320.

What are the two programs proposed to combat the disease in the example?

Program A saves 200 people; Program B has a 1/3 chance to save 600 people.

What is the expected utility formula?

EU = P(W) U(W) + P(L) U(L).

What is the significance of the Linda problem in understanding heuristics?

It illustrates how people can misjudge probabilities based on representativeness.

What is the impact of time pressure on decision-making in emergencies?

It can lead to quicker, often less rational decisions due to the dynamic nature of the situation.

What does the term 'combining probabilities' refer to?

The process of calculating the expected value or expected utility by integrating probabilities and outcomes.

What is the role of biases in decision making?

Biases can distort rational decision-making processes, leading to systematic errors.

What is the concept of 'utility' in decision-making models?

Utility refers to the subjective value or satisfaction derived from an outcome.