(COMPLETE) IB Psychology Exam Studies 9 mark (Bio, Socio, Cog)

Martin and Halverson 1981 (Schema Theory, Stereotypes)

AIM:
To investigate if gender schemas influence memory

METHOD:
Lab experiment, Independent groups

PROCEDURE:

5-6 year old children were asked to play with toys that are gender consistent and gender non consistent and then they were asked to recall what they saw and they misremembered the gender inconsistent information, and changed it to fit stereotypes.

CONCLUSION:
Children use schemas to process information

Maguire 2000 (Memory Processing, Spatial Memory, Neuroplasticity, Localization of Function, Brain Development)

AIM:
To see if spatial memory is linked to changes in the brain (hippocampus)

METHOD:
Quasi-experiment, Comparison of taxi drivers vs non-taxi drivers, Brain scans (MRI)

PROCEDURE:

• 16 male London taxi drivers

• 50 male non-taxi drivers (control group)

• All participants had brain scans (MRI)

• Measured hippocampus size

RESULTS:
Taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampus

• The longer they worked → the larger it was

• They had a smaller anterior hippocampus

CONCLUSION:
The brain can change with experience (neuroplasticity), spatial memory is linked to the hippocampus

EVALUATION:
Strengths

• Objective data (MRI scans) → reliable

• Shows real-life application (navigation skills)

Limitations

• Cannot prove cause and effect (quasi-experiment)

• Small, all-male sample → not generalizable

• Could be that people with bigger hippocampus become taxi drivers

Sperry (Language Processing, Thinking/Decision Making, Hemispheric Lateralization, Localization of Function)

AIM:
To investigate how the left and right hemispheres of the brain function after the corpus callosum is cut

METHOD:
Quasi-experiment, Case study approach, Split-brain patients

PROCEDURE:

• 11 Participants had severed corpus callosum (epilepsy treatment)

• Images/words shown to one visual field at a time

  • Right visual field, left hemisphere

  • Left visual field, right hemisphere

• Asked to say or draw what they saw

RESULTS:
Right visual field (left brain): could describe words (language)

Left visual field (right brain): could not say it, but could draw or point to it

CONCLUSION:
Brain is lateralized (different functions in each hemisphere)

• Left hemisphere, language

• Right hemisphere, visual/spatial skills

Antanova 2011 (Neurotransmission)

AIM:
To investigate how acetylcholine affects spatial memory in the hippocampus

METHOD:
Lab experiment

• Repeated measures design

• Brain scans (fMRI)

PROCEDURE:

• 20 Participants played a virtual reality navigation task

• Took either:

  • placebo

  • or scopolamine (blocks acetylcholine)

• Brain activity measured using fMRI

• A few weeks later, all 20 men came back and took the opposite treatment

RESULTS:
Placebo → normal hippocampus activity

• Scopolamine → reduced hippocampus activity

• Memory performance was worse with scopolamine

CONCLUSION:
Acetylcholine is important for memory formation, The hippocampus is involved in spatial memory

Ronay and Von Hippel 2010 (Hormones)

AIM:
To investigate whether testosterone influences risky behaviour, especially when in the presence of an attractive young woman

• Participants: 96 young male skateboarders (mean age 21.58).

• Procedure: Skateboarders were asked to perform one "easy" trick and one "difficult" trick (one they could only land about 50% of the time).

• Conditions: After practicing, participants performed the difficult trick 10 times in front of either a male experimenter or an attractive female experimenter.

• Measures: Researchers recorded successful landings, "crashes" (physical risk), and "aborted attempts" (risk aversion). Testosterone levels were also measured via saliva samples.

RESULTS:
Risk-Taking: Skateboarders in the female condition took more risks, evidenced by significantly fewer aborted attempts and more frequent crashes.

• Physiology: Testosterone levels were significantly higher in those performing for the female experimenter compared to the male.

CONCLUSION:
Testosterone is linked to increased risk-taking behaviour

Wedekind (Pheromones)

AIM:
To investigate whether humans prefer the smell of genetically different (MHC-dissimilar) partners, which may support immune system advantages in offspring.

METHOD:
Laboratory experiment

• Repeated measures design

• “Smelly T-shirt” study

PROCEDURE:

• 44 Male participants wore a plain T-shirt for 2 nights

• They were told to avoid strong-smelling foods, deodorants, etc.

• 49 Female participants (not on hormonal contraception) were asked to:

  • smell several T-shirts

  • rate each one for attractiveness, intensity, and pleasantness

• Some shirts were:

  • MHC-similar (genetically similar to the woman)

  • MHC-dissimilar (genetically different)

RESULTS:
Women generally preferred the smell of MHC-dissimilar men

• Smells from genetically different men were rated as:

  • more pleasant

  • more attractive

• However, this preference changed if women were on birth control pills (they tended to prefer MHC-similar smells instead)

CONCLUSION:
Humans may be biologically programmed to prefer genetically different mates

Bailey and Pillard 1991 (ADOPTION STUDY) (Genetic Similarity, Genes and Behaviour)

AIM:
To investigate whether genetics influence sexual orientation, specifically by studying concordance rates of homosexuality in twins and adopted siblings.

METHOD:
Natural experiment (no manipulation of variables)

• Twin study + adoption study

• Comparison of different sibling groups

• Retrospective self-report (questionnaire/interview data)

PROCEDURE:

• Sample included:

  • Identical (monozygotic) twins

  • Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

  • Adopted brothers

  • Non-twin biological brothers

• Participants were asked about their sexual orientation

• Researchers calculated concordance rates (how often both siblings were homosexual)

RESULTS:
Highest concordance in identical twins (~52%)

• Lower concordance in fraternal twins (~22%)

• Even lower in adopted brothers (~11%)

• Biological relatives showed higher similarity than adopted siblings

CONCLUSION:
Suggests a genetic influence on sexual orientation

Talarico and Rubin 2003 (Flashbulb Memory, Recon. Mem., Schema Theory)

AIM:
To investigate whether “flashbulb memories” (FBMs) are more accurate than everyday memories, and how they change over time.

METHOD:
Natural experiment

• Longitudinal study (tested over time)

• Repeated measures design

PROCEDURE:

• 54 Participants were asked to recall:

  • A flashbulb memory: their experience of hearing about the 9/11 terrorist attacks

  • An everyday memory: a recent normal event from the same time period (e.g. what they were doing on a regular day)

• They were tested:

  • Shortly after 9/11

  • Later (up to several weeks after)

• Participants reported:

  • what happened

  • confidence in their memory

  • emotional intensity

RESULTS:
Flashbulb memories were:

• very vivid and highly confident

• BUT not more accurate over time

• Both flashbulb and everyday memories became less accurate with time

• Confidence stayed high for flashbulb memories even when accuracy declined

CONCLUSION:
Flashbulb memories are not special in terms of accuracy

• They feel more vivid due to emotional intensity, not better memory storage

• Memory is reconstructive and changes over time

• High confidence does not equal high accuracy

Tajfel and Turner 1979 (Social Identity Theory)

AIM:
To explain how group membership (social identity) influences behaviour, especially in-group favouritism and intergroup discrimination.

METHOD:
Theory development (Social Identity Theory)

• Based on supporting minimal group experiments (Tajfel’s earlier research)

• No single laboratory procedure—model built from multiple studies

PROCEDURE:

• 64 boys are randomly assigned to groups based on trivial criteria (e.g. preference for paintings or coin toss)

• They do not know other group members

• They are asked to allocate rewards (e.g. money) to others in:

  • their own group (in-group)

  • another group (out-group)

RESULTS:
Participants consistently:

• favoured their own group members

• gave more rewards to in-group members than out-group members

• This happened even when:

  • groups were random

  • there was no personal benefit

CONCLUSION:
People naturally form a social identity based on group membership

• Behaviour is influenced by:

  1. Social categorisation (putting people into groups)

  2. Social identification (adopting group identity)

  3. Social comparison (favouring own group)

• Leads to in-group bias and out-group discrimination

Joy, Kimball, and Zabrack 1986 (Social Cognitive Theory, Social Learning Theory, Cognitive HL extension)

AIM:
To investigate whether exposure to television violence is related to aggressive behaviour in children.

METHOD:
Natural experiment

• Cross-cultural comparison

• Longitudinal element (before and after TV introduction in a community)

• Observational + correlational approach

PROCEDURE:

• Studied children in a 3 different Canadian towns (before and after TV was introduced)

• Compared them to children in similar communities that already had TV access

• Measured:

  • Levels of aggressive behaviour

  • Incidents of physical and verbal aggression in school and playground settings

• Data collected from teacher reports and observations

RESULTS:
After television was introduced:

• Significant increase in aggressive behaviour in children

• Children in communities with TV showed:

  • more physical aggression

  • more verbal aggression

• Higher exposure to TV violence was linked with higher aggression levels

CONCLUSION:
Exposure to television, especially violent content, is associated with increased aggression in children

Berry 1967 (Cultural Dimensions, Enculturation, Globalization)

AIM:
To investigate whether conformity levels differ between cultures, specifically comparing societies with different levels of individualism vs collectivism.

METHOD:
Cross-cultural study (field experiment)

• Quasi-experiment (culture is the independent variable)

• Standardised test of conformity (Asch-style task)

PROCEDURE:

• Participants from different cultures were tested:

  • Temne culture (Sierra Leone) – more collectivist, farming-based society

  • Inuit culture (Canada) – more individualistic, hunting/fishing-based society

• Participants were shown line judgement tasks similar to Asch’s conformity experiment

• They had to choose which line matched a reference line while being influenced by group pressure

RESULTS:
Temne participants showed higher levels of conformity

• Inuit participants showed lower levels of conformity

• Differences were linked to social structure and survival needs

  • Collectivist societies → more group dependence → higher conformity

  • Individualist societies → more independence → lower conformity

CONCLUSION:
Conformity is influenced by culture

• Social behaviour is shaped by environmental and cultural demands

• Supports the idea that psychology is not universal but culturally relative

EVALUATION:
Strengths

• Strong cross-cultural comparison

• High ecological validity (real cultural groups)

• Shows influence of environment on behaviour

Limitations

• Small sample sizes in some groups

• Cannot fully isolate why cultural differences exist

Berry 2005 (Acculturation Strategies)

AIM:
To investigate whether acculturation strategies (how migrants adapt to a new culture) affect psychological well-being and social adjustment.

METHOD:
Cross-cultural study

• Quasi-experiment (culture/acculturation style is naturally occurring)

• Survey method (questionnaires/interviews)

• Comparison of different cultural groups

PROCEDURE:

• Berry studied immigrant groups and indigenous populations

• Participants were classified based on acculturation strategy, such as:

  • Integration (maintaining original culture + adopting new culture)

  • Assimilation (replacing original culture with new one)

  • Separation (maintaining original culture only)

  • Marginalisation (losing connection to both cultures)

• Measures included:

  • psychological well-being (stress, anxiety, life satisfaction)

  • social adjustment (how well they adapted to new society)

RESULTS:
Integration showed the best outcomes:

• highest psychological well-being

• best social adjustment

• Marginalisation showed the worst outcomes:

  • highest stress and lowest adjustment

• Assimilation and separation had mixed outcomes depending on context

CONCLUSION:
The way individuals adapt to a new culture strongly affects mental health and adjustment