Argumentation

Presupposition

of a question is a statement one becomes committed to by giving any direct answer to the question.

Loaded questions

Have presuppositions the other party is not committed to at the given stage, but the question lures them into committing to the presupposition.

Complex Questions

include clauses which are linked by logical connectives, and rule out certain combinations of accepting/rejecting the clauses

aggressive questions

sets too narrow limits for the admissible answer, with no sufficient room for the other party to show their view as sound.

Loaded Terms

Suggest a positive or negative attitude. Agree in meaning but can have different connotations or emotional meaning.

Euphemism

expression with the same meaning but without the negative connotation/ emotive meaning

Loaded terms are dangerous because?

they offer a way to escape the burden of proof.

Deductive arguments are valid when

If the premise is true, and the premises and the negation of the conclusion are inconsistent.

Inconsistent propositions

Something is logically impossible.

Indefeasiblity

a valid argument cannot be weakened by new information

Deductive arguments

are formal, and when so strike as valid.

Inductive arguments

Strong: based on the truth of the premises we may presume the truth of the conclusion. New information can change the conclusion.

Defeasible arguments with true premises

establish a presumption in favor of the conclusion.

inductive generalization example

Most observed As are Bs. Most As are Bs.

Argument from popular opinion

rhetorically strong but easy to defeat, because it is based on our willingness to conform to others.

Argument from analogy

generally C1 is similar to C2, A is true in case C1. therefore A is true for C2.

Spurious Correlation

Correlating things that do not affect each other.

Mutual causation

does A cause B or does B cause A?

Sippery Slope Argument

Premise, to recursive premise, to bad outcome premise, to conclusion

ad hominem argument

an argument attacking an individual's character rather than his or her position on an issue

Circumstantial Ad Hominem

Arguing that a person's argument is wrong because of the person's circumstances, biases, or motivations.

Tu Quoque Ad Hominem

Rejecting a person's claim or argument by pointing out that the person's actions are in conflict with the person's position or claim (hypocrisy)

argument from consequences

Speaking for or against the truth of a statement by appealing to the consequences of accepting or rejecting it

Practical Inference

the argument scheme which serves to select the action needed to achieve the given goal

Practical reasoning

chain of practical inferences.

Sipping between the horns

attacking the premise by showing a third option

Grasping the horns

showing that one or both of the conditional premises is false.

Disjunctive reasoning

An ungeneralised version of a deductive argument. A or B. Not A. therefore B.

Lack of knowledge inference

Proposition A is not known to be true. If A were true, it would be known. therefore A must be false.

Ad Ignoratiam fallacy

A lack of knowledge argument with a false second premise.