Energy and Environment Week 15

batteries, critical minerals and rare earths

Lithium

lightest metal, simple. 3 protons and electrons. Low density allows for light, rechargeable batteries and easy ion transfer between cathode and anode

batteries can have high voltage and charge storage, may overheat

Lithium sources

• hardrock mining (spodumene)

• brine facilities (brine is pumped up from underground and evaporated to concentrate LiCl

• geothermal (brine comes up from subsurface as byproduct of geothermal, and LiCl is extracted from it)

Lithium mining effects

• energy and water intensive

• damaging to environment

• concentrated in SA and Canada/Australia

Cobalt

byproduct of copper mining. Cathode mineral. Provides stable batteries that don’t light on fire and high energy density/life.

Supply is limited (concentrated in southern DRC)

Nickel

Most nickel used for car batteries is gained via damaging strip-mining. Produces sulfur dioxide that kills surrounding forests and pollutes water bodies. Mostly in Philippines (converted rainforest)

used in extending battery life and storage

Rare earths

Light and heavy types. Used everywhere, especially in military, motors, and magnets for turbines. Heavy RE are scarce, more complex, and expensive to extract.

Not very geographically concentrated, all over globe despite name. NOT used in EV batteries

Deep seabed mining

• Ferromanganese crusts; seamounts

• Polymetallic sulfides around hydrothermal vents

• Polymetallic nodules

Seabed mining impacts

pros:

• extreme reserves--much more so than terrestrial deposits

• highly concentrated mineral deposits

• ease of access

cons:

• potential to displace animals and cause habitat damage

• noise, and stirring up harmful metals into the water column

• lack of regulation

• deep seafloor needs more research

Pillars of decarbonization

1. clean electricity

2. efficiency and electrification

3. net-zero fuels

4. CCS

Amount of CCS depends on

Amount of residual emissions left after carbon removal. Important due to CCS’ cost

Carbon Capture and sequestration (CCS)

prevention of CO2, once produced, from entering the atmosphere

Point source (CCS)

extracting CO2 directly from fossil fuel plants by trapping it as it is released

Enhanced oil recovery (CCS)

at oil wells, CO2 is captured and reinjected into the subsurface in such a way that allows more oil to be extracted. Most plausible method

CCS issues

• hard to know if storage of CO2 is permanent

• where to store it (saline aquifers under basins?)

• how to transport it

• time consuming process

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR)

Removal of CO2 already in the atmosphere via intentional interventions

Direct air capture (CDR)

extracts CO2 directly from atmosphere using chemical reactions. Captured CO2 can be reinjected underground or diverted for other use

Enhanced weathering (CDR)

Artificial weathering of high grade silicate rock to absorb CO2 (olivine, basalt) and spreading it over suitable areas (beaches, agricultural land, oceans)

could cause environmental issues/not be effective enough

Reasons for rising electricity cost

Datacenters raising demand, taxes, natural disasters (wildfire, wind, storms, etc), lack of transmission and distribution, sources of energy, natural gas volatility (due to war)

electricity mix doesn’t really affect consumer prices