management exam!!!

equity theory

states that people will be motivated when they percieve that they are being treated fairly

equity components

inputs: contributions made to firm

outcomes: rewards recieved for contributions

referents: others with whom people compare themselves to ascertain if they have been treated fairly

outcome/input ratio: employee’s perception of how the outcomes (rewards) received from an organization compare with the employee’s input (contributions) to that organization

forms of inequity

underrewarded: refrent’s O/I ratio is better than that of an employee

overrewarded: referent’s O/I is worse than that of the employee

motivating with equity theory (mangers should make processess fair)

distributive justice: perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed

procedural justice:the percieved fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions

expectancy theory

people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that:

• their effors will lead to good performance

• good performance will be rewarded

• they will be offered attractive rewards

components of expectancy theory

expectancy: effort vs. performance

instrumentality: performance vs. rewards

valence: desireablity of rewards

(all working together)

reinforcement theory

states that behavior is a function of its consequences

• Behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently

• Behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently

reinforcement

process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior

positive reinforcement

strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences

(player arrives early - praise)

negative reinforcement

strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when a specific behavior is performed

(player is on time - does not run)

punishment

weakens (decreases frequency) behavior by following behaviors with undesired consequences

(player is late - runs sprints)

extinction

weakens behavior by not allowing positive consequences to follow a previously reinforced behavior

(coach compliments early arrivals and then stops - player stops coming early)

goal-setting theory

people will be motivated to the extent to which they:

• Accept specific, challenging (organizational) goals (target, objective, result) and

• Receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement

components of goal setting

• Communication and understanding of goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, and performance feedback

communication

• Process of transmitting information from one person or place to another

• Basic management process cannot be performed effectively without effective communication

  • Planning

  • Organizing

  • Leading

  • Controlling

perception

• Process by which individuals attend to, organize, interpret, and retain information from their environments.

• Perception is a key to communication… why? What is perception based on?

  • Expectations

  • World view

  • Preferences

  • Is it important to me

  • Past experiences

stimuli

• People experience information stimuli through their perceptual filters - personality, psychology, or experience-based differences that influence people to ignore or pay attention to particular stimuli

basic perception process

perception problems- selective perception

• tendency to notice and accept objects and information consistent with one’s values, beliefs, and expectations while ignoring or screening inconsistent behavior

perception problem - closure

• tendency to fill in gaps of missing information by assuming that what one does not know is consistent with what one already knows… accurate/inaccurate?

perception problems - self-serving bias

• tendency to overestimate one’s value by attributing successes to oneself and failures to others or the environment

  • Makes it difficult for managers to talk to employees about performance problems

interpersonal communication process

• Process of transmitting information from one person or place to another

• perception is littered throughout each stage

communication process

• Noise (on arrow at bottom)

  • Anything that interferes with the transmission of the intended message

• Nonverbal

  • Any communication that does not involve words

• Jargon

  • Vocabulary particular to a profession or group that interferes with communication in the workplace

formal channels of communication

• A system of official channels that carry organizationally approved messages and information

• Downward communication: flows from higher to lower levels in an organization

• Upward communication: flows from lower to higher levels in an organization

• Horizontal communication: flows among managers and workers who are at the same organizational level - helps facilitate coordination and cooperation between different parts of the organization (shift nurses)

informal channels of communication

• Often called the grapevine (gossip, rumer mill) 

• Transmission of messages from employee to employee outside of formal communication systems

• Are they good sources of communication or an organization?

  • yes - builds relationships between employees

• How can the grapevine or rumor mill be managed?

  • Give them an opportunity to communicate back to higher authority

  • Transparency from the top down (reduces made up things)

managing one-on-one communication - choosing the right medium

• Medium: method used to deliver a message -  2 kinds

  • Oral communication (face to face / group)

    • Allows for questions and opportunities to receive and assess nonverbal communication. Better for delivering complex, ambiguous, or emotionally-laden messages

  • Written communication (letters, email, memos, social media)

    • Well-suited for delivering straightforward messages and information

hearing vs. listening

• Hearing

  • Passive - the act or process of perceiving sounds - involuntary

• Listening

  • active - making a conscious effort to to hear - voluntary

active vs. empathetic listening

• Active listening

  • Put speaker at ease and make eye contact - listening carefully to what the speaker says

  • Assume half the responsibility for successful conversation

  • Actively give speaker nonjudgmental feedback that shows one has accurately heard what was said

• Empathetic listening

  • Goes beyond active listening

  • Setting aside own attitudes/relationships to see through speaker’s eyes

  • Understanding the speaker’s perspective (emotion) and personal frame of reference

  • Give feedback that conveys this understanding to the speaker

giving feedback

• Destructive feedback

  • Disapproves without any intention of being helpful

• constructive feedback

  • Intended to be helpful, corrective, and/or encouraging

what is the best leadership style for all situations?

there is not one

management

• Focus: order, consistency, efficiency

• Asks: “how do we do this right?”

• Responsibilities: planning, budgeting, organizing, controlling

• Works within systems and processes

• Goal: stability and predictability

leadership

• Focus: vision, change, direction

• Asks: “are we doing the right thing?”

• Responsibilities: inspiring, motivating, influencing, setting direction

• Challenges the status quo

• Goal: movement and growth

leaders vs. managers

Leaders

• Focus on vision, mission, goals and objectives

• Encourage creativity and risk taking

• Have a long-term perspective

• Concerned with expanding choices

Managers

•  Shower term perspective

1. leadership traits (who leaders are)

1. Effective leaders possess a similar set of traits or characteristics

   1. Traits: relatively stable characteristics such as abilities, psychological motives, or consistent patterns of behavior

   2. Earlier version - taller, more stamina, “born, not made?”

   3. Even now- a “precondition for success”

2. Recent evidence suggests leaders are generally different from nonleaders in the following traits:

   1. Drive

   2. Desire to lead

   3. honesty/integrity

   4. Self-confidence

   5. Emotional stability

   6. Cognitive ability - smart

   7. Knowledge of the business

2. leadership behaviors (what leaders do)

1. Numerous studies - 2 basic leader behaviors central to successful leadership and forming the basis of upcoming leadership theories

   1. Initiating structure: the degree to which a leader structures the roles of followers 

      1. Setting goals and deadlines, giving directions, and assigning tasks

      2. Affects employee job performance

   2. Consideration: extent to which a leader is friendly, approachable, supportive, and shows concern for employees

      1. Affects employee job satisfaction

3. situational leadership theories - fiedler’s contingency theory

1. Performance can be maximized and leaders will be more effective when their leadership styles are matched to the proper situation

2. 2 main assumptions

   1. When their work groups perform well, leaders are considered effective

   2. A difference from other situational theories - leadership styles are consistent and generally unable to change - match style to situational

(These aren’t necessarily correct - a leader needs to change)

3. Situational favorableness - the degree to which a particular situation either permits or denies a leader the chance to influence the behavior of a group

4. Factors that lead to situational favorableness

   1. Leader-member relations - followers respect and trust leaders?

   2. Task structure - tasks clearly specified?

   3. Position power - leaders are able to hire, fire, reward and punish

3. situational leadership theories - hersey & blanchard’s

1. Leaders need to adjust their leadership styles to match followers readiness

2. Performance readiness: ability and willingness to take responsibility for directing one’s behavior at work

3. Components of readiness include

   1. Job readiness - knowledge, skill

   2. Psychological readiness - self-confidence, self-respect

3. situational leadership theories - path-goal

1. Leaders can increase subordinate satisfaction and performance by:

   1. Clarifying and clearing the path to those goals

   2. Increasing the number and kinds of rewards available for goal attainment

2. Leaders need to clarify how followers can achieve organizational goals, take care of problems that prevent followers from achieving goals, and then find more and varied rewards to motivate followers to achieve those goals

3. Leaders can change and adapt their leadership style!

3. situational leadership theories - normative decision theory

1. Leaders determine the appropriate amount of employee participation in decisions

2. Right degree of employee participation can improve:

   1. Quality of decisions

   2. Extent to which employees accept and are committed to decisions

   3. The likelihood that employees will agree with a decision

3. Decision styles

   1. Autocratic - leaders make decisions

   2. Consultative - leaders share problems but still make decisions

   3. Group - leaders share problems and have subordinates make decisions

4. visionary leadership theories

1. Creates a positive image of the future that:

   1. Motivates organizational members

   2. Provides direction for future planning and goal setting

2 types! - charismatic + transformational

4. visionary leadership theories - charismatic leadership

1. Strong, confident, dynamic personalities that attract followers, enable leaders to create strong bonds with followers, and articulate a clear vision for the future based on strongly held values or morals

1. Ethical charismatic leaders:

   1. Provide developmental opportunities for followers and recognize their contributions

   2. Are open to positive and negative feedback

   3. Have moral standards that emphasize the large interests of the organization or society

2. Unethical charismatic leaders

   1. Control and manipulate followers

   2. Do what is best for themselves

   3. Have moral standards that put their interests before everyone else’s

4. visionary leadership theories - transformational

1. A step further… able to make followers feel that they are a vital part of the organization and help them see how their jobs fit with organization’s vision

2. “Transforming” - generates awareness and acceptance of a group’s purpose and mission. 

3. Enable employees to feel as though they are a vital part of the organization and see beyond their own needs and self-interests

4. Followers are inspired. Their values, attitudes, and motives are elevated, so they commit to the organization’s vision and go beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group.

5. Components

   1. Idealized influence - role models

   2. Inspirational motivation - provide meaning (energize + unite) & challenge. Clearly communicate vision

   3. Intellectual stimulation - creative & innovative. Encourage critical thinking

   4. Individualized consideration - pay special attention to followers’ individual needs

transformational vs. charismatic

Transformational leaders increase the confidence of followers in themselves + the mission of the organization, while charismatic leaders increase the followers confidence in the leader.

(5) transactional leadership

• Based on traditional exchange process in which followers are rewarded for good performance and punished for poor performance

• Problems:

  • May rely heavily on discipline or threats to bring performance up to standards

  • Exchange- rewards for performance or punishments for failure - often does not inspire long-term commitment or creativity. Followers do what’s required, but rarely go beyond that.

control

regulatory process of establishing standards to achieve organizational goals, comparing actual performance against standards, and taking corrective action when necessary

continuous - ongoing

dynmanic - constant change

cybernetic - constand attention to feedback is necessary to stay on course

control processes - standards

basis of comparison for measuring the extent to which various kinds of organizational performance are satisfactory or unsatisfactory

• Standards should enable goal achievement and can be determined by:

  • Past performance related to goals

  • Listening to customer feedback

  • Observing competitors 

control processes - benchmarking

• Identifying other companies and collecting data against which to compare. Benchmarking focuses on identifying outstanding practices, processes, and standards in other companies and adapting them to your company

control processes - maintaining control

• Control is achieved when behavior and work procedures conform to standards and company goals are accomplished

• behavior/work procedures + standards = goals achieved

Control loss: occurs when behavior and work procedures do not conform to standards

basic control mechanisms - when

• Feedback control (output) - reactive to learn and improve for next time. Gathering information about performance deficiencies after they occur and using it to correct or prevent performance deficiencies

• Concurrent control - correct in the moment. Gathering information about performance deficiencies as they occur, thereby eliminating the delay between performance and feedback

• Feedforward control (input) - proactive and preventative. Monitoring performance inputs to minimize performance deficiencies before they occur

control methods - how

• Bureaucratic control

  • Top down. Use of hierarchical authority to influence employee behavior. Rewarding or punishing employees for compliance or noncompliance with organizational rules, policies, procedures

• Objective control

  • Evolved from bureaucratic control - use of observable measures of worker behavior or outputs to assess performance and influence behavior

• Normative control

  • Regulation of worker behavior by widely shared organizational values and beliefs

• Concertive control

  • Regulation of workers’ behavior and decisions through work team/group values and beliefs. Work groups are typically given complete autonomy

• Self-control (self-management)

  • Managers and workers control their own behavior by setting their own goals, and monitoring their own progress

emotional intelligence

Emotions impact our ability to choose the better option

• Definition: the ability to choose correctly in an emotion-charged environment

self awareness (leading self - what i see)

1. Know strengths, limits

2. Know values, beliefs, emotions, moods

3. Aware in the moment

4. The most important part of emotional intelligence

5. What happens to those with low self-awareness?

   1. Interrupting others, talking about themselves all the time, unwillingness to accept responsibility or accountability

   2. Therefore they don’t learn or grow

   3. Live in an emotional prison

6. Don’t trust yourself - seek & receive feedback!

self management (what i do - leading self)

1. Event -> moment of truth -> either you react (creates negative cycle) OR you respond (creates positive cycle)

2. What happens in the moment of truth?

   1. Next steps - what do I do

   2. The real you comes out - your character is revealed

   3. Who is the real you?

      1. Behaviors (above iceberg) - what I do

      2. Personality - who i am

      3. Values - who i am

      4. Purpose - who i am

social awareness (what i see - leading others)

1. Listens with eyes

2. Cares for others

3. Lives “in moment”

4. Listen to understand instead of to respond

5. How to grow in empathy?

   1. Be present

   2. Dimmer switch + on/off switch

   3. Be the on/off switch

6. Practice listening

relationship management (leading others - what i do)

1. Mutual benefit

2. Be authentic in how you deal with others

3. Influence

4. Inspiration

5. Transparency

can EQ be improved?

• Yes but… it’s hard

• You need

  • Serious commitment

  • Time & experience

  • Coaches & mentors!

IQ gets you hired, EQ helps you thrive + gives opportunity for success (helps protect relationships)