geography paper 2

global pattern of urban change

• urbanisation: an increase in the proportions of people living in towns and cities

• over half of the worlds population now lives in urban areas

• urbanisation is happening fastest in LICs and NEEs

• HICs are mostly already urbanised with slower rates of growth

urban growth is creating more megacities and increasing pressure on infrastructure and services

urban trends in HICs and LICs

HICs :

• urban growth is slower; more focus on regeneration and sustainability.

• urban decline in some inner city areas (deindustrialisation).

• growth of commuter settlements and urban sprawl.

LICs :

• rapid urban growth due to rural-urban migration and high natural increase

• urban areas often lack adequate housing, sanitation, and services

• informal employment and slum settlements are common

factors affecting the urbanisation

Push factors (rural) : poverty, poor education and healthcare, limited job opportunities, conflict or natural disasters.

Pull factors (urban) : better jobs, education, healthcare, higher living standards

Natural increase: birth rates higher than death rates, especially in younger populations.

the emergence of megacities

Megacity: an urban areas with over 10 million people.

• growth is driven by rural-urban migration and natural increase.

• examples include Lagos, Mumbai, and Sao Paulo.

• Megacities face challenges such as overcrowding pollution and inadequate infrastructure.

the growth of Lagos

rural-urban migration :

• over the past 50 yrs, rural-urban migration has been the main driver of Lago’s growth.

• push factors include lack of jobs and low wages rural areas

• pull factors include the prospect of well-paid work and the attraction of an urban lifestyle

• by 2015, just over half the population lived in rural areas, but as rural-urban migration continues, the majority will be urban within the next few years

Natural increase

• the city has a youthful population since most migrants tot he city are young.

• this leads to a high birth rate, contributing to the natural increase in population.

opportunities of urban growth in lagos

• healthcare: lagos offers better healthcare services compared to rural areas, with more hospitals and clinics available

• employment: lagos has a high demand for services and retail, leading to employment opportunities in the service tertiary sectors

• industry: excellent transport links have fostered industrial growth, creating 100s of thousands of jobs in manufacturing

challenges of urban growth

Informal settlements:

• over 60% of Lagos’s population lives in informal settlements in Makoko

• homes are overcrowded, self built and lack of basic sanitation- sewage often ends up in lagoon

• clean water and electricity are unreliable and expensive

• waste collection is rare, leading to pollution and blocked drains

• despite poor conditions, communities are economically active and socially resilient

• evictions and demolitions have caused conflict.

other urban challenges

water sanitation and energy:

• many rely on wells for water which are often contaminated

• only a small proportion of waste is formally collected

• electricity supply is unreliable, with frequent power cuts

urban challenges more

health and education:

• hospitals are overstretched, limiting access to care

• schools are overcrowded and many children miss out on education

urban challenges

unemployment and crime:

• youth unemployment is high, increasing poverty and social tensions

• crime, including theft and gang activity , is a serious issue in some areas

urban challenges

environmental issues :

• air and water pollution from traffic and poor waste management

• flooding and environmental degradation are common in low-lying areas

urban planning improving

• in Makoko :

• installations of new drainage systems to reduce flooding

• provision of clean water supply and improved sanitation facilities

• construction of community health centres and schools

• upgrading of roads and street lighting to improve safety and accesbility

• communication encourgements- building communities

impact of migration on london

Population growth:

• migration; especially of young adults, has drven population growth and a rising birth rate in london

• cultural diversity: london is the UK’s most diverse city; with vibrant communities from many ethnic backgrounds enriching its culture.

• economic impact: migrants contribute to key sectors like healthcare, construction, and hospitality boosting the economy and innovation

• pressure on services: increased demand for housing, healthcare, education, and transport has put pressure on infastructure.

• urban change: migration has shaped neighbourhoods and driven regeneration in soem areas.

opportunities of urban change

• London’s population is growing rapidly

• the population is becoming increasingly ethnically diverse

• the population of London is youthful

• the motorways network has made it more accessible

• london is the first national park city due to urban greening

Shoreditch

• cultural diversity: urban change has created a vibrant, multicultural community

• recreation and entertainment; new bars, galleries and venues have boosted the areas social life and economy

• creative and tech industries

challenges of urban change

widespread deprivation: over 2 million ppl in london experiance poverty, housing, education and etc

urban sprawl and commuter settlements: londons growth has extended into the rural urban fringe, increasing demand for housing and transport, this has led to expansion of commuter towns like reading and chelmsford, putting pressure on green spaces and infastructure.

urban regeneration

lea valley, stratford, london:

area had derelict industrial land, pollution, and poor housing

high unemployment and limited access to servies

• main features of the project:

• 2012 olympic used as a catalyst for redevelopment

• new housing- affordable homes

• investment in trasport, jobs and public services

• new schools, health centres

east village- sustainble urban living

water and energy conservation: homes are designed to reduce energy use with good insulation and energy-efficient applinaces.

water metres encourges reduced water use and rainwater is collected for irrigation

• water recyling- a clear recycling system in place, helping minimise landfill waste and promotes re-use of materials.

reducing traffic congestion

elizabeth line

crossrail project: designed to increase transport capacity and reduce journey times

• increased capacity- carries up to 200 million passengers a year- releasing preassure on other lines

• faster journeys- reduces travel times across london heathrow to liverpool in 35 mins

• integrated network- links with underground and rail services for smoother journeys

causes development gap

historical: colonialism slowed progress in africa, asia and south america

physical: landlocked countries, extreme climates, and natural hazards

economic: poor trades links, reliance on few exports, debt, unfair trade

political: corruption, conflict, unstable goverments

consequences of uneven development

wealth: HICs hold most global wealth, LICs and NEEs often rely on primary products

health: LICs high infant mortality, fewer doctors, disease; HICs - longer life expectancy

international migration: people move from LICs/ NEEs to HICs for work and better living standards

reducing the development gap

investment- TNCs invest n LICs/NEEs , creating jobs

aid- given by HICs to LICs

fair trade- ensures producers in LICs get a fair price

debt relief - cancelling debts helps poor countries invest

tourism- creates jobs and incomes (e.g kenya safari tourism)

changing industrial structure

Nigeria’s economy has transitioned from being primarly agriculutre based to a more diversified structure including manufacturing and services

manufacturing now accounts for a significant portion of nigeria’s GDP

the growth of industries such as cement production, food processing and textiles has stimulated economy development by creating jobs and attracting foreign investment

changing relationships

political relationships: Nigeria was a part of the British Empire and remains in common wealth

strong ties with the uk and increasing political influence in Africa through the Africian Uninion and UN peacemaking

trading relationships:

exports- crude oil (japan, india) , cotton, cocoa

imports- refined petroleum, food, cars and mobile phones (mainly from china and usa)

environmental impacts

deforestation: up to 80% of Nigerias forests have been lost, leading to soil erosion and loss of biodiversity

oil pollution: oil spills have contaminated water sources and harmed aqautic life- niger delta

urban pollution: rapid urbanisation has led to increased waste and air pollution in cites like Lagos

effects of development on QOL

• + economic growth has increased employment oppurnutinites and income

• + improved infasturture and services enhance living standards in urban areas

• - economic benefits are unevenly distributed, with rural areas lagging behind

• - environmental degradation has adversely affected health and livelihoods in some regions

causes of economic change - UK

deindustrialisation

• decline of traditional industries

• caused by mechanaition, cheaper exports and recoures depletion

• north east england hit hard by job losses

globalisation

growth in internatonal trade and investments

manufacturing moved abroad; uk now focused on services and high-tech

foreign companies invest in uk jobs and tech

goverment policies

privatisation and deregulation

support for enterprise zones and education

shift towards knowledge based economy

the UK’s post-industrial economy

information technology:

• employs 1.3 million; key to homeworking and mobile access

• UK attracts major tech investments

• tech sector is growing faster than the rest of the economy

services and finance:

• largest uk sectors, finance 2 million jobs and 10% of GPD

• London is a global financial hub

modern sustainable