AP World History Unit 3

Gunpowder

A chemical explosive used in cannons and muskets. It allowed centralized states to dismantle the castles of local nobles and build massive empires, defining the "Gunpowder Empires" era.

Mughal Empire

A Muslim empire in India (1526–1857) that ruled a majority Hindu population. It is famous for its religious diversity, massive wealth from cotton textiles, and monumental architecture.

Akbar the Great

The most famous Mughal Emperor. He practiced religious tolerance, abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims, and created a centralized bureaucracy using Zamindars.

Aurangzeb

A later Mughal ruler who reversed Akbar’s policies of tolerance. His strictly Islamic laws and expansionist wars weakened the empire's internal stability and emptied the treasury.

Ming Dynasty

(1368–1644) The dynasty that overthrew the Mongols and restored Chinese tradition, including the Civil Service Examand Neo-Confucianism. They sponsored Zheng He's voyages before turning inward.

Manchu

A nomadic people from Northeast Asia (Manchuria) who defeated the Ming Dynasty and established the Qing Dynasty. They maintained their ethnic identity while adopting Chinese governing styles.

Qing Dynasty

(1644–1911) The final imperial dynasty of China. They expanded China's borders significantly but forced cultural changes like the queue hairstyle to signify submission to Manchu rule.

Ottoman Empire

A Sunni Islamic empire based in Istanbul. It controlled the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa for centuries, utilizing a highly organized bureaucracy and elite military.

Safavid Empire

A Shia Islamic empire in Persia (modern-day Iran). Their state religion created a sharp cultural and political divide with their Sunni neighbors (Ottomans and Mughals).

Safavid-Mughal Conflict

A series of wars fought primarily over control of Kandahar, a strategic city that served as a gateway for trade. It highlights the territorial and religious tensions between these powers.

Songhai

(c. 1464–1591) The largest of the West African Islamic empires, which replaced Mali. It dominated the Trans-Saharan trade through its control of the gold and salt routes. Its power was built on a strong central government and a professional army, but it eventually collapsed after an invasion by Moroccans armed with gunpowder weapons.

Ottoman Tax Farming

(Iltizam) A system where the government auctioned the right to collect taxes to wealthy notables. Over time, this led to corruption and the oppression of the peasantry.

Ottoman Devshirme

A system where Christian boys from the Balkans were recruited by force, converted to Islam, and trained as elite soldiers or government bureaucrats loyal only to the Sultan.

Janissaries

The elite infantry force of the Ottoman Empire, formed from the Devshirme system. They were the first modern standing army in Europe to use gunpowder weapons.

Millet System

An Ottoman policy that allowed religious minorities (Jews and Christians) to govern themselves according to their own laws, provided they paid the jizya tax and remained loyal.

Single Whip Reform

A Ming Dynasty fiscal policy that required all taxes to be paid in silver. This caused a massive global demand for silver, primarily from the Americas (Potosí).

Protestant Reformation

A 16th-century religious movement led by Martin Luther that challenged the Catholic Church. It led to the fragmentation of Christendom and decades of religious warfare in Europe.

Sunni

The largest branch of Islam, which believes the caliph should be chosen by the community. It was the state religion of the Ottoman and Mughal Empires.

Shi’a

The branch of Islam that believes the leader must be a descendant of Muhammad. It was the state religion of the Safavid Empire, leading to frequent conflict with Sunni states.

Sikhism

A syncretic religion founded in India by Guru Nanak. It blended elements of Hinduism and Islam (monotheism and reincarnation) and challenged the caste system.

Versailles

The massive palace built by Louis XIV outside Paris. It served as a tool of "legitimacy" and a way to monitor and control the nobility by keeping them under his roof.

Louis XIV

The "Sun King" of France and the ultimate example of an Absolute Monarch. He famously stated, "L'état, c'est moi" (I am the state).

Tzar

The title used by Russian emperors. It is derived from "Caesar," reflecting Russia’s claim to be the "Third Rome" and the protector of Orthodox Christianity.

Cossack

Peasant-soldiers in the Russian steppe. They were vital for the Russian Empire's expansion into Siberia but often revolted against the centralizing power of the Tzar.

Peter the Great

The Tzar who "Westernized" Russia. He moved the capital to St. Petersburg, modernized the military, and forced nobles to adopt Western dress and shave their beards.

Absolutionism

A political theory where a monarch holds total power, justified by the Divine Right of Kings. This centralized power by weakening regional nobles and parliaments.

Scientific Revolution

A period in the 17th century when thinkers (like Newton and Galileo) used observation and math to understand the universe, challenging the traditional authority of the Church.

Humanism

An intellectual movement of the Renaissance that focused on human potential and achievements rather than strictly religious or divine matters.

Religious Humanism

(Christian Humanism) A branch of humanism that combined a focus on human potential with a desire to reform the Church and deepen personal piety.

Scientific Humanism

A philosophy that emphasizes using the scientific method and reason to solve human problems and improve the human condition, often moving away from the supernatural.

The Renaissance

A "rebirth" of classical Greek and Roman art and learning in Europe (starting in Italy). It was funded by trade wealth and used by rulers to legitimize their power through art.

Taj Mahal

A massive mausoleum built by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan for his wife. It is a prime example of using monumental architecture to demonstrate wealth and power.

Tokugawa Shogunate

(1603–1867) A centralized military government in Japan that ended civil war, restricted foreign influence (Sakoku), and used the "alternate attendance" system to control the Daimyo.

Mughal Zamindar Tax Collection

A system where local aristocrats (Zamindars) collected taxes from peasants for the central government. While it helped Akbar centralize power, later corruption and tax-farming among Zamindars weakened the empire’s economy.

Maratha- Mughal Conflict

A long series of wars between the Hindu Maratha Empire and the Muslim Mughals. The Marathas successfully challenged Mughal authority, significantly contributing to the decline of the Mughal Empire by the 18th century.

Timar System

An Ottoman land-grant system where the Sultan gave land to cavalrymen (Sipahis) in exchange for military service. It ensured a loyal army but was eventually phased out as gunpowder infantry (Janissaries) became more important.

Harem Politics

The influence exerted by the wives and concubines of an emperor (especially in the Ottoman and Mughal empires) over state affairs. This showed that political power often resided in the domestic spheres of the palace.

Shah Abbas the Great

The strongest ruler of the Safavid Empire. He modernized the military with gunpowder, moved the capital to Isfahan, and used trade to make Persia a global center of culture and silk production.

Babur

The founder of the Mughal Empire. A descendant of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, he used gunpowder and superior tactics to conquer Northern India, laying the foundation for a 300-year dynasty.

The Queue (hair)

A hairstyle (braided in back, shaved in front) the Manchu Qing Dynasty forced all Han Chinese men to wear. Refusal was seen as treason and punishable by death, serving as a tool of ethnic and political control.

Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV)

The first Tzar of Russia. He centralized power by violently crushing the power of the Boyars and expanding Russian territory into Siberia, using secret police to maintain control.

Boyar

The land-owning noble class in Russia. They traditionally held great power, but were frequently targeted by Tzars (like Ivan IV and Peter the Great) who sought to centralize all authority in the crown.

Peter the Great’s Reforms

A series of policies aimed at Westernizing Russia. This included a table of ranks for the bureaucracy, building a modern navy, and forcing nobles to adopt Western fashion and education.

Pugachev Rebellion

A massive peasant/Cossack revolt during the reign of Catherine the Great. It was a reaction against the tightening of serfdom and centralized control, leading the state to become even more repressive.

Oda Nobunaga

The first of the "Three Unifiers" of Japan. He was the first Japanese leader to effectively use gunpowder weapons(firearms) to defeat rival daimyo and begin the process of ending the Sengoku period.

Tokugawa Leyasu

The final unifier of Japan and founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate. He established the "alternate attendance" system to keep the daimyo under his thumb and ensured centuries of internal peace.

Seclusion Act of 1636

A Japanese law that strictly limited foreign trade and travel (part of the Sakoku policy). It was designed to keep out Western (Christian) influence and maintain the Shogunate's absolute control.

Cossack Revolts

Frequent uprisings by the self-governing, militarized communities of the Russian steppe. These revolts (like the Pugachev Rebellion) challenged the Tzar's attempts to expand serfdom and centralize power.

Elizabeth I

The "Virgin Queen" of England who stabilized the country after the Protestant Reformation. She defeated the Spanish Armada and oversaw a "Golden Age" of English culture and exploration.

King Henry VIII

The English king who broke away from the Catholic Church to form the Church of England (Anglicanism). This move allowed him to seize church lands and consolidate power under the monarchy.

English Civil War

(1642–1651) A conflict between supporters of the Monarchy and supporters of Parliament. It resulted in the execution of Charles I and proved that the King’s power was not absolute.

English Bill of Rights

(1689) A document signed by William and Mary that limited the power of the monarch and guaranteed certain rights to Parliament. It established England as a Constitutional Monarchy.

James I

The first Stuart king of England who strongly believed in the Divine Right of Kings. His refusal to work with Parliament laid the groundwork for the future English Civil War.

Isabella and Ferdinand

The "Catholic Monarchs" of Spain who unified the country through the Reconquista, sponsored Christopher Columbus, and used the Inquisition to enforce religious uniformity.

Realism

An artistic and intellectual movement (prominent in the Renaissance) that focused on depicting subjects as they actually appeared in real life, reflecting a shift toward secular and scientific observation.

Niccolo Machiavelli

An Italian Renaissance political philosopher who wrote The Prince. He argued that rulers should be pragmatic ("it is better to be feared than loved") rather than strictly moral.

Askeri

The elite administrative and military class in the Ottoman Empire. They were exempt from taxes and held high status, distinguishing them from the tax-paying "Reaya" (commoners).

Sipahi

Ottoman feudal cavalrymen who were granted land (Timars) in exchange for military service. They were the backbone of the early Ottoman military before the rise of the Janissaries.

Topkapi Palace

The primary residence and administrative headquarters of the Ottoman Sultans in Istanbul. Like Versailles, it was a symbol of the ruler’s immense power and centralized bureaucracy.

Kiev and Rus

The early medieval state in modern-day Russia/Ukraine. Its conversion to Orthodox Christianity and its interactions with the Byzantines laid the cultural foundation for the later Russian Empire.

Ivan the Great (Ivan III)

The Prince of Moscow who ended Mongol rule (The Golden Horde) over Russia. He was the first to call himself "Tzar" and began the massive expansion of the Russian state.

Oprichnina Terror

A state policy of mass repression and public executions under Ivan the Terrible. It was carried out by his secret police to break the power of the Boyars and instill absolute fear.

Descartes

A French philosopher and mathematician of the Scientific Revolution. Famous for "I think, therefore I am," he emphasized rationalism and the use of logic to find truth.

Sir Isaac Newton

The scientist who formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation. His work proved that the universe operated according to natural laws, a core idea of the Scientific Revolution.

The Prince

A political treatise by Machiavelli. It is the definitive guide on how to gain and keep power, emphasizing that the "end justifies the means" in statecraft.