HIST 2A03 PT. 5

VIPS

Osman I — Ottoman Empire

Founder of the Ottoman dynasty; died 1325

Established a small principality in northwest Anatolia

Considered the first Ottoman sultan retroactively (never used the title himself)

Built a centralized administration, tolerant of religious and ethnic minorities

Murad I — Ottoman Empire

Reigned 1362–89; first to formally claim the title of Sultan (1383)

The Ottoman Empire greatly expanded into the Balkans

Established the Janissaries as a professional military force

Killed at the Battle of Kosovo (1389)

Bayezid I — Ottoman Empire

Reigned 1389–1402; used Janissaries with devastating effect

Subdued much of Greece

Defeated and captured by Timur (Tamerlane) at the Battle of Ankara (1402)

His capture triggered an Ottoman civil war

Mehmed II ("the Conqueror") — Ottoman Empire

Reigned 1444–46 and 1451–81

Conquered Constantinople in 1453; ended the Byzantine Empire

Renamed Constantinople Istanbul; made it the Ottoman capital

Continued westward; besieged Belgrade (1456)

Selim I — Ottoman Empire

Reigned 1512–20

Extended Ottoman rule eastward: conquered Syria (1516) and Egypt (1517) from the Mamluks

Granted the title "Khadim al-Haramayn" (Protector of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina)

From this point, Ottoman sultans claimed the title of Sunni Caliph

Suleiman I ("the Magnificent") — Ottoman Empire

Reigned 1520–66; son of Selim I

Represented the peak of Ottoman power; the most powerful army in Europe

Captured Rhodes (1522), besieged Vienna (1529), took Baghdad (1534)

Defeats at Malta (1565) and Vienna mark the beginning of Ottoman decline

Shah Isma'il — Iran (Safavid)

Reigned 1501–1524; founded the Safavid Empire

Forcibly converted Iran to Twelver Shia Islam; destroyed Sunni shrines

Took title of "Shah"; captured Baghdad (1508)

Defeated by Ottomans at Battle of Chaldiran (1514); lost upper Mesopotamia

Shah Abbas I — Iran (Safavid)

Reigned 1588–1629; Safavids peaked under his rule

Moved capital to Isfahan; undertook major military reforms

Centralized administration using tribal land revenues to fund military

Retook Baghdad and parts of Iraq from the Ottomans

Zahir al-'Umar — Levant (Ottoman Empire)

Died 1775; originally a tax collector in Sidon

Took control of Akka (1746); came to control western Lebanon and northern Palestine

Pushed cotton production; traded directly with French merchants; acted as an independent figure

Revolted against Ottomans 1770; killed during Ottoman siege of Akka 1775

Selim III — Ottoman Empire

Reigned 1789–1807; first major Ottoman reformer

Created the Nizam-i Cedid (New Order Army) modelled on European armies

Recruited European advisors; sent Ottoman ambassadors to European courts

Overthrown and killed by the Janissaries (1807) who opposed his reforms

Mahmoud II — Ottoman Empire

Reigned 1808–39; brother of Selim III

Learned from Selim's failure; removed opponents before pushing reforms

Destroyed the Janissaries in the Auspicious Event (1826)

Laid groundwork for the Tanzimat era; established first Ottoman newspaper in Turkish

Muhammad Ali — Egypt

Reigned 1805–48; Albanian-born; rose to power after French left Egypt

Massacred the Mamluks (1811); built a conscript army; monopolized the economy

Promoted cotton; invaded Sudan, Arabia, Greece, and Syria

Gained hereditary rule of Egypt via the Treaty of London (1840) in exchange for withdrawing from Syria

Ibrahim Pasha — Egypt

Son of Muhammad Ali; died 1848

Led Egyptian military campaigns in Arabia (1811–18), Greece, Syria, and Anatolia

Defeated the Ottoman army at Konya (1832); recognized as Governor of Syria (1833–40)

Implemented his father's centralizing policies in Syria; forced to withdraw by British navy (1840)

Isma'il (Khedive) — Egypt

Reigned 1863–79; grandson of Muhammad Ali

Radically Europeanized Egypt; declared "My country is no longer in Africa, it is now in Europe"

Completed Suez Canal (1869); built schools and infrastructure

Went bankrupt; sold Egypt's Suez Canal shares to Britain (1875); dismissed by Ottoman sultan (1879)

Ahmad Urabi — Egypt

Colonel who led popular revolt against Tawfiq and European control (1882)

Represented Egyptian army and popular opposition to European interference

Defeated by British forces; captured and exiled

His revolt triggered the British veiled protectorate

Lord Cromer (Evelyn Baring) — Egypt (British)

British High Commissioner 1883–1907; effectively ruled Egypt

Prioritized debt repayment; deliberately restricted higher education fearing nationalism

Built Aswan Low Dam (1902); doubled Egypt's railway lines

Resigned after the Dinshaway incident (1906) created a rallying point for Egyptian nationalism

Naser al-Din Shah — Iran (Qajar)

Reigned 1848–96

Granted monopolies to European figures: Reuter (1872) and Talbot tobacco monopoly (1890)

Tobacco Protests (1891) forced him to cancel the tobacco monopoly; demonstrated his limited authority

Turned to European loans; deeply weakened Qajar state

Abdul Hamid II — Ottoman Empire

Reigned 1876–1909

Agreed to constitution (1876) then suspended it (1878) after war with Russia; ruled autocratically for 30 years

Promoted Pan-Islamism and expanded education; built Hijaz Railway

Brutally repressed Armenians; deposed by Young Turks (1909)

Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) — Turkey

Hero of Gallipoli; established Grand National Assembly in Ankara (1920)

Led Turkish War of Independence; founded Republic of Turkey (October 29, 1923); first president

Radical secularizer: abolished caliphate, Sharia courts, Sufi orders; Romanized alphabet; Gregorian calendar

Women given municipal vote (1930) and parliamentary vote (1934); 18 women won seats in 1935

Sharif Hussein ibn Ali — Saudi Arabia

Emir of Mecca; led the Arab Revolt (1916) against Ottomans

Promised independent Arab state by British via Husayn-McMahon Correspondence

Lost British support when he opposed the mandate system

Defeated by Ibn Saud who took the Hijaz (1925)

Faisal (Faysal) — Syria then Iraq

Son of Sharif Hussein; led Arab Revolt forces; entered Damascus (1918)

Proclaimed King of Syria (June 1920); expelled by French forces

Appointed King of Iraq by British (1921); reigned until death 1933

Built coalition government managing Iraq's ethnic and sectarian diversity

Abdullah I — Jordan

Brother of Faisal; marched from Hijaz to southern Jordan (1920)

British set him up as Emir of Transjordan (1921); loyal British ally

Declared himself King of Jordan (1946); annexed West Bank (1950)

Assassinated 1951; succeeded briefly by son Talal then grandson Hussein

Ibn Saud (Abd al-Aziz) — Saudi Arabia

Founder of Saudi Arabia; died 1953

Formed powerful alliance with Wahhabi clerics; took the Hijaz from Hussein (1925)

Declared Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1932); signed oil concession with Standard Oil of California (1933)

Largely dependent on British military and financial support despite nominal independence

Reza Shah — Iran

Led Cossack Brigade coup into Tehran (1921); appointed Shah by Majles (1925)

Centralized Iran; crushed tribal and regional resistance; became largest landowner in Iran

Westernized: introduced secular schools, Western dress, Western legal codes; banned veiling (1936)

Abdicated under Anglo-Soviet pressure (1941); succeeded by son Mohammad Reza Shah

Hasan al-Banna — Egypt

Founded the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1928)

Called for an Islamic system where religion and state were interchangeable

Built grassroots social welfare network; grew into major political force

Assassinated (likely by Egyptian security forces) 1949

Theodor Herzl — Zionism

Founded modern political Zionism in late 19th century

Argued Jews needed a national homeland free from persecution

Moved to Ottoman Palestine himself (1898); organized First Zionist Congress (1897)

Died 1904; his movement ignored the existence of Arab populations already in Palestine

King Hussein — Jordan

Reigned 1952–99; survived multiple coups and assassination attempts

Lost West Bank to Israel in June War (1967)

Expelled PLO from Jordan during Black September (1970)

Signed peace treaty with Israel (1994); succeeded by son Abdullah II (1999)

Gamal Abdel Nasser — Egypt

Led Free Officers coup (July 1952); became president 1956

Nationalized Suez Canal (1956); survived tripartite invasion; became pan-Arab hero

Created United Arab Republic with Syria (1958–61); promoted Arab socialism

Suffered humiliating defeat in June War (1967); died September 1970

Anwar Sadat — Egypt

President 1970–81; former Free Officer

Expelled Soviet military mission from Egypt (1972)

Led October War (1973); restored Egyptian military credibility

Visited Jerusalem (1977); signed Camp David Accords (1978) and Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty (1979); Egypt expelled from Arab League; assassinated by al-Jihad October 1981

Hosni Mubarak — Egypt

President 1981–2011; air force commander during October War

Cautious ruler; Egypt readmitted to Arab League (1989)

Maintained peace with Israel; aligned closely with US

Overthrown by Arab Spring protests (February 2011)

Hafez al-Assad — Syria

President 1971–2000; Alawite from poor rural background; air force general and Ba'th Party leader

Seized power by overthrowing Jadid (November 1970)

Crushed Muslim Brotherhood at Hama (1982); ~10,000 killed

Intervened in Lebanon (1976); Syrian troops remained until 2005; succeeded by son Bashar (2000)

Mohammad Mosaddeq — Iran

Prime Minister 1951–53; aristocratic politician with impeccable reputation for honesty

Led National Front coalition; nationalized Iranian oil industry (AIOC)

Overthrown by CIA and MI6-backed coup (August 1953)

Imprisoned; died under house arrest; symbol of Iranian desire for sovereignty

Mohammad Reza Shah — Iran

Reigned 1941–79; restored to power by CIA coup (1953)

White Revolution (1963): land reform, literacy corps, women's enfranchisement

Built SAVAK (secret police) with US and Israeli help; massive military buildup

Overthrown by Islamic Revolution (January 1979); died in exile 1980

Ayatollah Khomeini — Iran

Senior Shia cleric; exiled 1964 for criticizing the Shah

Developed concept of vilayat-i faqih (governance of the Islamic jurist)

Led Islamic Revolution; returned to Iran February 1979; became Supreme Leader

Died June 1989; under his rule Iran fought Iraq (1980–88) and held US hostages (1979–81)

Abd al-Karim Qasim — Iraq

Led coup overthrowing Hashimite monarchy (July 1958); killed the king and leading ministers

Instituted agrarian reform law (1958); cut working day to 8 hours; lowered taxes for poor

Helped establish OPEC (1960); threatened to annex Kuwait (1961)

Overthrown and killed by Abd al-Salam Arif (February 1963)

Saddam Hussein — Iraq

Sunni Arab from Takrit; Ba'th Party; became president 1979

Iran-Iraq War (1980–88); used chemical weapons on Iranians and Kurdish population

Invaded Kuwait (1990); expelled by US-led coalition in Gulf War (1991)

Toppled by US invasion (2003); captured December 2003; executed 2006

Yasir Arafat — Palestine

Co-founded Fatah (1959); elected PLO chairman (1969)

Survived Black September (1970)

Recognized Israel's right to exist (1988); signed Oslo Accords (1993)

Elected PA president (1996); confined to Ramallah compound (2002); died November 2004

Yitzhak Rabin — Israel

Commanded Israeli forces in June War (1967) as army chief of staff

Elected Prime Minister 1992 on peace platform; signed Oslo Accords with Arafat (September 1993)

First Israeli PM born in Palestine

Assassinated by Jewish extremist Yigal Amir at Tel Aviv peace rally (November 4, 1995)

Menachem Begin — Israel

Led Irgun terrorist organization during British mandate

Leader of Likud; Revisionist Zionist; believed all Biblical Israel should be incorporated into Jewish state

Signed Camp David Accords with Sadat (1978) and Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty (1979)

Launched 1982 invasion of Lebanon; resigned 1983 after Lebanon war failures and Sabra and Shatila massacre

Binyamin Netanyahu — Israel

Likud leader; Revisionist Zionist; multiple terms as PM (1996–99, 2009–21, 2022–present)

"Slowed down" Oslo peace process; intensified settlement construction in occupied territories

Longest-serving Israeli PM; corruption charges (bribery, fraud, breach of trust)

2022 coalition: most far-right government in Israeli history; judiciary reform attempts sparked massive protests

Osama bin Laden — Al-Qaeda (Saudi Arabia)

Saudi-born; funded and led Al-Qaeda; fought against Soviets in Afghanistan

Turned against US when American troops were deployed in Saudi Arabia after Gulf War

Organized September 11 2001 attacks killing 3,000+; triggered US invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq

Killed by US special forces in Pakistan (May 2011)

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan — Turkey

Co-founded AKP (Justice and Development Party, 2001); won 2002 elections in landslide

Increasingly authoritarian: arrested journalists,

Won 2023 elections despite economic crisis; Turkey's most transformative leader since Atatürk but in authoritarian direction

Muhammad Morsi — Egypt

Muslim Brotherhood leader; elected president of Egypt 2012 after Arab Spring

First democratically elected president in Egyptian history

Overthrown by military coup led by Sisi (July 2013); Muslim Brotherhood banned

Died in custody 2019

Hassan Rouhani — Iran

President 2013–21; former chief nuclear negotiator under Khatami

Won on platform of reduced tensions with West; negotiated JCPOA with P5+1 (2015)

Re-elected 2017; undermined when Trump unilaterally withdrew from JCPOA (2018)

Economic collapse under sanctions; hardliners banned reformist candidates in 2020 elections

T.E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia") — Britain/Arabia

British army officer attached to the Arab Revolt (1916)

Advised and fought alongside Faisal's forces

Helped capture Aqaba (1917), preventing potential German reinforcements

Became iconic figure of the Arab Revolt; wrote "Seven Pillars of Wisdom"

Hasan al-Banna — Egypt

Founded the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1928)

Called for an Islamic system where religion and state were interchangeable

Built grassroots social welfare network; grew into major political force

Assassinated (likely by Egyptian security forces) 1949

Abdullah II — Jordan

Succeeded his father King Hussein (1999); reigned to present

Western-educated; moderate; maintained peace with Israel and close ties with US

Navigated Arab Spring without losing power; faced significant Palestinian refugee pressure

Reformed economy; Jordan remained stable while neighbours descended into chaos

Bashar al-Assad — Syria

Succeeded his father Hafez al-Assad (2000); Western-educated ophthalmologist

Initially seen as potential reformer; quickly reverted to authoritarian rule

Responded to Arab Spring protests (2011) with brutal military crackdown; triggered civil war

Survived with Russian and Iranian military support; retains power over much of Syria

Michel Aflaq — Syria/Ba'th Party

Co-founded the Ba'th Party in Syria (1940s) with al-Bitar

Orthodox Christian educated in Paris; developed doctrine of Arab unity, liberty, and socialism

Expelled from Syria after the Ba'athist coup; welcomed by Saddam Hussein in Baghdad

His ideology became the ruling doctrine of both Syria and Iraq

Abd al-Salam Arif — Iraq

Helped Qasim come to power in 1958, but was quickly dismissed

Overthrew and killed Qasim with Ba'th and Arab nationalist support (February 1963)

Renewed unification talks with Egypt and Syria; nationalized Iraqi banks and industries

Died in helicopter crash in 1966; succeeded by his less popular brother Abd al-Rahman Arif

Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr — Iraq

Led the Ba'thist coup (1968); became president of Iraq

From Takrit, worked closely with Saddam Hussein, who was his vice president

nationalized the oil industry (1972)

Resigned under pressure from Saddam Hussein (1979)

Salah Jadid — Syria

Alawite general; took power in Syrian coup (1966)

Head of the Syrian army and prominent Ba'th Party leader

Overthrown by fellow Alawite Hafez al-Assad (November 1970)

Imprisoned until his death (1993)

Fu'ad Shihab — Lebanon

Commander of the Lebanese army during the 1958 crisis; kept the army out of sectarian fighting

Elected president 1958 as a compromise candidate supported by both Nasser and the Americans

Attempted to strengthen the Lebanese state and break the power of sectarian elites

His presidency (1958–64) is seen as one of Lebanon's more stable periods

Rafiq Hariri — Lebanon

Sunni billionaire businessman; Prime Minister 1992–98 and 2000–04

Rebuilt central Beirut as cosmopolitan Mediterranean city; attracted foreign investment

Represented vision of Lebanon aligned with France, US, and Gulf states

Assassinated by massive car bomb February 14 2005; Syria widely blamed; sparked Cedar Revolution

Hassan Nasrallah — Lebanon

Secretary-General of Hezbollah from 1992 to present

Built Hezbollah into both a major military force and significant political party

Led Hezbollah during 2006 war with Israel; claimed victory for fighting Israel to a standstill

Aligned Hezbollah with Syria and Iran; supported Bashar al-Assad in the Syrian civil war

Muhammad Khatami — Iran

President 1997–2005; religious scholar but exceptionally worldly

Won on a platform of tolerance, social reform, a greater role for women, and strong support from youth and women

Unable to implement reforms due to the Guardian Council and the Supreme Leader blocking legislation

Won landslide re-election (2001) but remained blocked; the reformist movement ultimately failed

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad — Iran

President 2005–13; first non-cleric president in 24 years; former mayor of Tehran

Populist; redistributed oil wealth; defiant international posture; denied Holocaust

Expanded nuclear program; led to intensified international sanctions

Ayatollah Ali Khamenei — Iran

Supreme Leader 1989–present; succeeded Khomeini

Less commanding figure than Khomeini; allowed more authority to slip to the Guardian Council

The Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps became a major power center under his rule

Supported JCPOA negotiations but limited their broader political implications

David Ben-Gurion — Israel

Dominant figure of Israel's creation; proclaimed the state of Israel (May 14, 1948)

Prime Minister and Defence Minister for most of 1949–63

Established military control over all armed forces (Altalena affair)

Established doctrine of disproportionate retaliation

Ariel Sharon — Israel

General; rose to prominence in the 1967 war; defence minister during the 1982 Lebanon invasion

Forced to resign after the Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982)

Elected PM 2001; launched disengagement plan evacuating Gaza settlers (2005)

Felled by stroke in January 2006; succeeded by Ehud Olmert

Mahmoud Abbas — Palestine

Succeeded Arafat as PA president (elected 2005)

Opposed the Second Intifada; called for a return to negotiations

Oversaw the gradual crumbling of PA's legitimacy; ruled by decree since no elections were held after 2006

PA is increasingly seen by Palestinians as collaborating with the Israeli occupation

Paul Julius de Reuter — Iran

In 1872 secured from Naser al-Din Shah the right to develop Iran's entire infrastructure

Received a monopoly on railways, canals, dams, mining, and agriculture

Monopoly so unpopular that the Shah was forced to cancel it a year later

Represented the degree to which Qajar shahs were selling off Iranian sovereignty for cash

G.F. Talbot — Iran

In 1890, a 50-year monopoly was granted over sale, export, and production of tobacco in Iran

Tobacco is widely cultivated and consumed in Iran; the monopoly hurt farmers and merchants

Shia ulama declared tobacco use a religious offence; a nationwide boycott followed

Shah forced to cancel monopoly (1892); demonstrated the power of ulama and weakness of Qajar state

Muhammad Ahmad — Sudan

Claimed to be the Mahdi; led a revolt against Egyptian rule in Sudan (1881)

Movement was both religious and a political rejection of Egyptian authority

Initial British and Egyptian efforts failed to suppress the revolt

Died 1885; his followers briefly established an Islamic state in Sudan

Nuri al-Said — Iraq

Long-serving Iraqi PM; pro-British, pro-Western orientation

Key political figure of the Hashimite monarchy era

Killed during Qasim's coup (July 1958) along with King Faisal II

Represented the old Anglo-Iraqi order that the Free Officers sought to destroy

Faisal II — Iraq

Reigned 1939–58; came of age as king in 1953

Government remained pro-Western, opposed Nasser and communism

Killed during Qasim's Free Officers coup (July 1958)

His death ended the Hashimite monarchy in Iraq

Muhammad Bouazizi — Tunisia

Young Tunisian fruit seller who set himself on fire December 17 2010

Personal protest against economic misery and official abuse

His self-immolation sparked nationwide protests in Tunisia

Triggered the Arab Spring that spread across the entire Middle East

Muammar Gaddafi — Libya

Led coup overthrowing Libyan monarchy (1969)

Ruled Libya for 42 years; pan-Arab and later pan-African ideology

Brutal suppression of Arab Spring protests (2011) led to NATO intervention

Killed by rebel forces (October 2011); Libya descended into civil war