Psychology chap 9,10,11,12,13

developmental psychology

field that examines how humans change over the course of their lives and considers which changes are shared across people and which are different

synaptic pruning

physiological process of preserving synaptic connections that are used, and eliminating those that are not used; allows every brain to adapt well to any environment

Teratogens

agents that harm the embryo or fetus like drugs, bacteria, viruses, alcohol etc.

visual acuity

ability to distinguish differences among shapes, patterns, and color; newborns is poor but increases rapidly over first 6 months and reaches adult level when infant is about a year old

preferential-looking technique

infant looks longer at one thing that find more interesting

habituation technique

a way to study how infants categorize a series of objects, such as faces, based on the principle that after looking at objects that all from the same category, babies will look for a longer time at objects from a new category

infantile amnesia

inability to remember events from early childhood

high-contrast

infants prefer ( ) over low-contrast photos b/c they have poor color vision and low visual acuity

attachment

strong, intimate, emotional connection between people that persists over time and across circumstances

4 attachment styles of kids

secure, insecure, anxious (ambivalent), avoidant, disorganized

children are qualitatively different from adults, children are active learners

Jean Piaget’s theory about the development of thinking

schemes

ways of thinking based on personal experiences

assimilation

a new experience is placed into an existing scheme

accomodation

a new scheme is created or an existing one is dramatically altered to include new information

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Piaget’s 4 stages of development

object permanence

sensorimotor stage, understanding that an object continues to exist even when it’s hidden from view

egocentrism

preoperational stage, tendency for preoperational thinkers to view the world through their own experiences

classic operation

action that can be undone, like turning a light on and off

sensorimotor stage

first stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; during this stage, infants acquire information about the world through senses and motor skills. Reflexive responses develop into more deliberate actions through development and refinement of schemes

preoperational stage

second stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; during this stage, children think symbolically about objects, but they reason based on intuition and superficial appearance rather than logic, no understanding of the conservation of quantity

concrete operational stage

3rd stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; during this stage, children begin to think about and understand logical operations, and no longer are fooled by appearances

formal operational stage

final stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; in this stage, people can think abstractly, and can formulate and test hypotheses through deductive logic

emphasize social relations over objects in thinking about cognitive development, focused on the role of social and cultural context

Lev Vygotsky’s idea on cognitive development

higher pitches

people tend to speak in ( ) when talking to babies

theory of mind

ability to infer what another person is feeling or thinking

prosocial behavior

any voluntary action performed with the specific intent of benefiting another person, performed as young as 4 years old

1. preconventional level

2. conventional level

3. postconventional level

Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral judgement

inequity aversion

begins as young as 19 months of age, preference for fairness

preconventional level

at this level, self-interest and event outcomes determine what is moral

conventional level

at this level, strict adherence to societal rules and the approval of others determine what is moral

postconventional level

at this level, decisions about morality depend on abstract principles and the value of all life

puberty

1. refined synaptic connections

2. increase in gray matter

3. frontal cortex not fully myelinated until mid 20s

4. different parts of brain mature at different rates (teenagers just have different priorities than adults)

aspects of teenager’s brains

gender expression

way people outwardly express their gender through their behavior, interests, and appearnce

sexual orientation

who they are sexually attracted to

intersexuality

people that have biological traits of both sexes

cisgender

ppl having gender identities that conform to their assigned sex at birth

transgender

people who were assigned one sex at birth but whose gender identity is that of the other sex

gender identity

one’s sense of being male, female, or nonbinary

gender role

a behavior that is typically associated with being male or female

recognition

elderly are better at ( ) than retrieval

increase and decrase

with aging, crystallized intelligence ( ) and fluid intelligence ( )

socioemotional selectivity theory

a theory proposing that as people grow older, they view time as limited and therefore shift their focus to meaningful events, experiences, and goals

affect

physiological process, behavioral response, feeling that is based on cognitive appraisal of the situation and the interpretation of bodily states

mood

diffuse, long-lasting emotional states that don’t have an identifiable trigger or a specific behavioral and physiological response

circumplex model

valence (how negative/positive), arousal (how activating they are)

emotion

an immediate, specific negative or positive response to environmental events or internal thoughts

primary emotions

emotions that are innate, evolutionarily adaptive, and universal

secondary emotions

blends of primary emotions

insula

part of limbic system that senses somatosensory signals , disgust

amygdala

if ( ) is damaged, ppl don’t show classical fear conditioning

fast path for sensory information

thalamus→ amygdala→ responses

slow path

thalamus→ visual/auditory cortex→ amygdala→ response

amygdala

1. emotional events are likely to increase activity in ( )

2. ( ) modifies how the hippocampus consolidates memory, especially memory for fearful events

3. ( ) is also involved in the perception of social stimuli

facial feedback hypothesis

The idea that you can activate an emotion by changing your facial muscles into the associated expression,

misattribution of arousal

physical states caused by a situation can be attributed to the wrong emotion, when people misidentify the source of their arousal, it is called ( ) , 예) 흔들리는 다리 위에서 여자 봤을 때 더 좋아지는

James-Lange theory

A theory of emotion stating that people perceive specific patterns of bodily responses and as a result of that perception feel emotion

Cannon-Bard theory

info about emotional stimuli is sent simultaneously to the cortex and the body and results in emotional experience and bodily reactions

two-factor theory

physiological response to all emotional stimuli are same, the arousal is interpreted differently, given a label

Display rules

Rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions are suitable in given situations

Ideal effect

Emotional and affective states that people want to feel or that cultures especially value ex) Asia-calmness

Guilt

1. Feelings of ( ) discourage people from doing things that would harm their relationships

2. displays of ( ) demonstrate that people care about their relationship

3. ( ) is a tactic that can be used to manipulate others

Motivation

process that energizes, guides, persists, and differs in strength, maintains behavior toward a goal

need

a state of deficiency, which can be biological, social, or psychological

Need hierarchy

Maslow’s arrangement of needs, in which basic survival needs must be met before people can satisfy higher needs

Self-actualization

state when people achieve their own best self, living up to their potential and thus are truly happy

Drive

a psychological state that by creating arousal, motivates an organism to satisfy a need

homeostasis

tendency for bodily functions to maintain equilibrium

negative-feedback loop

feedback that decreases the activity of the system like eating, sleep, temperature control

Yerkes-Dodson law

when an arousal goes over a moderate point, the quality of performance goes down

Incentives

external objects or external goals rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors

extrinsic motivation

motivation directed toward an external goal, typically a reward

intrinsic motivation

value or pleasure associated with an activity, rather than toward any external goal like reading, doing puzzles, listening to musics

quality

intrinsic motivation is more related to ( ) of the work on the taks

quantity

extrinsic motivation is more related to the ( ) of the work

pleasure principle

Freud’s idea that people act according to what encourages them to seek pleasure and avoid pain

hedonism

humans’ desire for pleasantness and avoidance of unpleasantness

approach motivations

when we are motivated to approach certain things and avoid others like food, sex typically associated with pleasure

avoidance motivation

motivation that encourage people to avoid negative outcomes

self-efficacy

expectation that your efforts will lead to success

achievement motive

desire to do well relative to standards of excellence

grit

determination to keep making progress despite setbacks

self-regulation

the process by which people guide their behavior to attain personal goals like graduate school 가려고 친구들이랑 안 놀고 공부하는 것

turning hot cognition into cold cogntion

mentally transforming the desired object into something undesired

hot cognition

rewarding, pleasurable aspects of objects

cold recognition

conceptual or symbolic meanings

need to belong

fundamental motive to make and maintain interpersonal attachments that has evolved for adaptive purposes

would want to be with someone that is simarily anxious

those in high-anxiety condition ( )

social comparison theory

we compare ourselves with those around us to test and validate personal beliefs and emotional responses

balance theory

people have a preference for triads where the relationships are in harmony and an aversion to triads where there is disharmony.

cognitive dissonance

unpleasant feeling of being aware of holding two conflicting beliefs or a belief that conflicts with a behavior

self-affirmation

intrinsic need to view and present themselves as coherent and stable

self-determination theory

people are motivated to satisfy needs for competence, relatedness to others, and autonomy

core values

strongly held beliefs about the enduring principles that are most important and meaningful

well-being

positive state that requires health and life satisfaction

biopsychosocial model

model that says health and illness result from combination of psychological factors, biological characteristics, and social conditions

health disparities

differences in health outcomes, such as rates of illness or death, among different groups of people

immigrant paradox

immigrate한 사람이 later 세대보다 더 건강

socioeconomic status

education, wealth, income

socioeconomic status health gradient

disparities in health outcomes and even mortality rates among socioeconomic status