social exam 2

attitude

A positive or negative evaluation of
an object (people, things, events, and issues)

explicit attitudes

Consciously held, involving more
thoughtful and deliberate evaluation

implicit attitude

An attitude that is activated
automatically from memory, often without the person’s
awareness that she or he possesses it

-          Simple gut level evaluations 

dual attitudes

conflicting implicit and explicit attitudes

mere exposure effect

The tendency to develop
positive feelings towards objects and people the more we are exposed to them

classical conditioning

Learning through association when a neutral
stimulus is paired with a stimulus that naturally
produces an emotional response

operant conditioning

all about rewarding and punishing behaviors

cognitive dissonance

A feeling of discomfort by
performing an action that is inconsistent with
one’s attitudes

elaboration likelihood model

Persuasive messages can cause attitude
change in two ways, each differing in the amount of cognitive effort or elaboration it requires

central route of persuasion

When people think carefully about a message and are
influenced by the strength of its arguments

Peripheral Route of Persuasion

When people do not think carefully about a
message and are instead influenced by cues irrelevant to the content or quality of the message

reference group

what our attitudes are formed and shaped by

persuasion

The process of consciously
attempting to change attitudes through the
transmission of some message

stereotypes

Beliefs about the personalities, abilities, and
motives of a social group that don’t allow for individual
variation

prejudice

Attitudes toward members of specific groups
that directly or indirectly suggest they deserve an inferior
social status

discrimination

A negative and/or patronizing action towards

members of specific groups

subtyping

A cognitive process in which we perceive an
individual who doesn’t fit our stereotype as being an
exception to the rule and create a separate subcategory of
the stereotype for that individual

ambivalent prejudice

high competence, high warmth

Negative Emotions: None
Positive Emotions: Respect, Admiration, Affection
Behavior: Defer
Common Targets
Dominant groups: middle-class people, White
people, Christians, heterosexuals

envious prejudice

high competence, low warmth

Negative Emotions:
Envy, Fear, Resentment, Hostility
Positive Emotions:
Grudging admiration of abilities
Behavior: Avoid, Exclude, Segregate, Exterminate
Common Targets: Jewish People, Asians, Feminists, Rich people,
Female Professionals, Black Professionals

paternalistic prejudice

low competence, high warmth 

Negative Emotions:
Disrespect, Condescension
Positive Emotions:
Patronizing affection, pity, liking
Behavior: Personal intimacy, but role segregation
Common Targets: Older adults, people with disabilities, traditional
women, adolescents and young adults

contemptuous prejudice

low competence, low warmth

 Negative Emotions:
Disrespect, disgust, resentment, hostility
Positive Emotions: None
Behavior: Avoid, exclude, segregate, exterminate
Common Targets: People with low SES, unhoused people, Muslims,
LGBTQ+ people, undocumented immigrants, etc

stigma

An attribute that discredits a person or a
social group in the eyes of others

social categorization

Socialization of what constitutes different racial
categories, such as skin color and facial
characteristics, automatically activates racial
stereotype

ingroup bias

Perceiving our ingroups as being better
than other groups

system justification theory

Members of both advantaged
and disadvantaged groups often endorse the group status
hierarchy in society as legitimate and fair

social dominance theory

In all societies, groups can be organized in a hierarchy of power
with at least one group being dominant over all others
• Negative stereotypes and prejudicial attitudes of nondominant
groups serve to justify their continued oppression.
• People develop less egalitarian beliefs towards outgroups as
their group’s status increases in comparison

contact hypothesis

Direct contact between
antagonizing groups can reduce prejudice
• One of the most tested methods for reducing intergroup
hostility

ingroup

a group to which we belong and that forms a part of our social identity

outgroup

any group with which we do not share membership

racism

Prejudice and discrimination based on a
person’s racial background

Personal discrimination discrepancy

The tendency to minimize/downplay the extent to which they have personally experienced discrimination in their jobs and daily lives is known

obedience

The performance of an action in response to a direct order,
usually from a person of high status or authority

conformity

Yielding to perceived group pressure by copying the behavior
and beliefs of others
• Think the clothing you wear, the food you eat, the music you prefer, etc

compliance

Publicly acting in accord with a direct request

Plurastic ignorance

The tendency to think that everyone else is interpreting a
situation in a certain way, when in fact they are not, primarily driven by conformity to social norms

anticonformity

Opposition to social influence on all
occasions, often caused by psychological reactance

thats not all technique

Making a larger request, then immediately offering a discount or
a bonus before refusal

lowball technique

Securing an agreement with a request by understating its’ true cost

foot in the door technique

Securing compliance for a small request, then following up with a
larger, undesirable request

door in the face technique

Having a larger request refused, then counteroffering with a much
smaller request

social impact theory

that the influence of individuals on others is a function of their strength, immediacy, and number.

normative influence

Occurs when a person
conforms in order to gain rewards or avoid
punishment from another person or group
• Asch Study

informational influence

Occurs when an
individual conforms due to the belief that other
may have more accurate information
• Sherif Study

interderpendence

to the mutual influence and reliance between individuals, where actions in a relationship affect both partners' outcomes

social cohesion

Group success and failure are affected by – and influence

social loafing

Group induced reduction in individual output
when performance efforts and cannot, therefore, be
individually judged

social facilitation

The enhancement of dominant responses due
to the presence of others

diffusion of responsibility

the belief that the presence of others in a situation makes one less personally responsible for the events that occur in that situation

tak oriented group

People often join groups because of a desire to
achieve certain task-oriented goals that they can’t attain alone

socioemotional group

Becoming a group member provides an opportunity to satisfy affiliative motives as the desire of approval, belonging, prestige, friendship, and love

evaluation apprehension

Making one’s own individual effort identifiable

expectation states theory

Development of group status is based on
member’s expectations of others’ probable contributions to the
achievement of the group’s goals, and that these expectations are
shaped by members’ task-relevant characteristics and diffuse-status characteristics such as race, age, wealth, etc