LEXICAL MEANING: ESSENCE AND STRUCTURE

Extension

The class of all objects a word can refer to (e.g., bachelor: all unmarried adult men in the world)

Intension

The core, logical definition of a concept representing a set of necessary and sufficient features (e.g., bachelor: human, male, adult, unmarried)

Implication

The periphery of associative meaning representing a set of probable, contextual, or inferred features (e.g., bachelor: lives alone, enjoys freedom, might be lonely)

Referential Approach

The approach to semantics stating that meaning is a direct connection between a word and an object in the real world

Referent [референт]

The linguistic connection to a specific, concrete object in the world (e.g., that bird on the branch)

Denotatum [денотат]

The linguistic connection to an entire class of objects (e.g., all birds)

Conceptual Approach

The approach to semantics stating that meaning is a connection between a word and a concept or notion in the mind

Purpose of a word

To serve as the fundamental unit of communication and the carrier of information, enabling us to ultimately formulate experiences verbally even when we "understand without words"

Interjection

A word, sound, or phrase used to express sudden, spontaneous emotions or reactions

Conceptual worldview

A personal image of the world and a cognitive worldview formed by our brain

The semantic triangle

A semiotic model consisting of symbol (word form), referent (object), and concept (idea), where meaning is defined as the connection between these three points

Synonyms (general)

Words with similar meanings that express similar concepts (e.g., quickly – fast – rapidly) and can often replace each other in a sentence

Thematic Groups (definition)

Words related to the same broad concept or theme that belong to the same semantic field but cannot replace each other in a sentence (e.g., house, hut, mansion; or fork, knife, spoon)

Homonyms (general)

Words with the same form but different meanings (e.g., fork for eating vs. fork in a road; or night vs. knight)

Phraseological Units

Stable expressions where the overall meaning is figurative and cannot be derived literally from the individual words (e.g., in the nick of time)

Regional/Dialectal Signal

A linguistic feature that signals a speaker's regional background or accent (e.g., Russian "дроля" signals a Northern dialect; specific intonations signal a Scottish accent)

Formality/Register Signal

The use of long, rare, or polysyllabic terms that signals a formal, specialized, or academic style

Frequency Signal

The statistical commonness or rareness of a word that provides informational context about its usage

Symptomatic information

The underlying information about the speaker's background, region, style, or education level conveyed through their speech choices, beyond the object being named

Grammatical meaning includes

A word's function in a sentence (fixed word order like S-V-O), its part of speech, and grammatical categories such as number or case

Lexical meaning

The combined semantic structure of a word consisting of its denotation (core) and connotation (shades)

Denotation

The core, primary conceptual extension and main referential meaning of a word, derived from Latin denotare (to mark, designate)

Connotation

The additional emotional, cultural, or stylistic shades of meaning associated with a word, derived from Latin connotare (to mark with, imply)

Synonyms (in Lexical Structure)

Words that are close in their denotation but differ primarily in their connotation (e.g., look, stare, glance, watch)

Homonyms (in Lexical Structure)

Words that share the exact same form but possess completely different denotations (e.g., bank)

Paronyms

Words that have a highly similar form but completely different meanings (e.g., conservatory as a greenhouse vs. conservatoire as a music college)

Thematic Groups (in Conceptual Structure)

Words united by a common theme (e.g., "family", "parts of the body") that lead to the psychological notion of a concept

Thesaurus

A dictionary that organizes words thematically and conceptually rather than alphabetically (e.g., Roget's Thesaurus, which served as an early model for cognitive linguistics by dividing the vocabulary into conceptual blocks)

Concept

A large, complex mental formation that can encapsulate an entire personal, emotional, or cultural experience within a single word

Понятие

A logical, rational mental category defined strictly by essential features, resembling a dry dictionary definition

Концепт

A richer, broader cognitive category that includes emotions, associations, cultural experiences, and evaluations, meaning it is felt rather than just thought (e.g., deep cultural concepts like душа, судьба, тоска)