Rome Week 13-Final

Why does Postumus die and what does it mean? (269 CE)

• killed by his own people because he refused to sack a city

• instability in Gallic Empire

Odaenathus (220-267 CE)

• ruler of Palmyra

• ally to Rome

• given control of East region by Gallienus (King of Kings) → successful

Zenobia (240-274)

• Odaenathus’ wife and took control after his death

• led aggressive military expansion (eastern empire and Egypt conquered)

  • severed ties with Roman empire

Gallienus’ Downfall and Aureolis

• military commander Aureolis declares support of Postumus and leads a rebellion

• Gallienus tricked by soldiers that Aureolis was coming after him and killed by soldiers

Claudius Gothicus (268-270)

• chosen emperor by the army

• dealt with Goths well

Aurelian

• one of most influential emperors

• marked restoration period

• dealt with Northern and Eastern frontier invasions

• retook cities from Zenobia and captured her

Aurelian’s reforms?

• mobile field armies which responded to threats quickly

• barbarian invasions dealt with

• reunification of the Roman Empire

• Aurelian walls

• promoted cult of Sol Invictus

Aurelian and economy

attempted to improve debased coinage → loss of trust in Roman money and INFLATION

Aurelian Walls

massive defensive fortification by Aurelian

Sol Invictus

cult/god which unified state religion by Aurelian

How did Aurelian die?

framed and murdered

Probus (276-282 CE)

restabilization continued after Aurelian (northern border)

Diocletian (284-305 CE)

• commander before emperor

• co-rule with Maximian which split imperial rule and later created the Tetrarchy

Maximian

• co-rule with Diocletian

• part of the Tetrarchy

• ruled over the West and Augustus

Tetrarchy Period (293-324)`

• 4 regions ruled by 4 emperors

How was the first Tetrarchy split?

• Diocletian → East (Augustus)

• Maximian →West (Augustus)

• Galerius → East (Caesar)

• Constantius I → West (Caesar)

Diocletian’s reforms?

• divided provinces → central control improved

• expanded army with 20-30 new legions

• frontier defenses

• inflation control and new tax system

Edict of Maximum Prices (301)

• by Diocletian

• charging higher than a maximum price meant execution

The Great Persecution of Christians (303-311)

• large → harshest in the East because Galerius despised Christianity

• strengthened Christianity through martyrs

Diocletian and Maximian’s retirement (305 CE)

• unusual since death usually indicated the end of a reign

• elected Galerius and Constantius as new Augusti

• Severus II and Maximinus Daza become new Caesars

Constantine I

• Augusti with Galerius after Constantius’ death

  • angers Galerius

• son of Constantius I

Tetrarchy Civil Wars (306-324 CE) cause?

• Constantine I elected emperor by troops due to biological lineage

• Maxentius (Maximian’s son) declared himself emperor

  • co-ruled with his father who came out of retirement

Conference of Caruntum (308)

• held during Tetrarchy Civil wars

• Galerius holds negotiation

• Maximian retires again

• Licinius (Galerius’ main general) made Augustus and dealt with Maxentius

After Conference of Caruntum?

• Maximian rejects idea of retirement and rebels against Constantine I

  • unsuccessful →Constantine surrounds him

    • Maximian commits suicide

Edict of Serdica (311 CE)

• under Galerius

• allowed Christians to practice religion as long as Roman welfare was in mind

Battle of Milvian Bridge (312)

• Constantine vs. Maxentius for control of the West

• Constantine had a religious vision of victory →wins battle

• Maxentius flees and drowns

Licinius (312-313)

• made Augustus by Galerius

• alliance with Constantine

Battle of Tzirallum (313 CE)

• Maximinus Daza declared himself Augustus

• war with Daza vs. Licinius and Constantine

Edict of Milan (313 CE)

• under Constantine and Licinius

• full religious toleration of Christianity

• rapid expansion of Christianity

How did Licinius and Constantine’s relationship progress? (313-324)

their alliance faltered after a disagreement on who should be Caesar so Licinius backs out of the Edict of Milan

Battle of Adrianople (324 CE)

• civil war between Constantine and Licinius

Battle of the Hellespont (324 CE)

• naval battle between Constantine and Licinius

• set up Constantine’s final victory

Battle of Chrysopolis (324 CE)

• Constantine vs. Licinius

• Constantine’s final victory which ends the civil war and the Tetrarchic period

• Constantine I = sole emperor

Constantine’s founding of Constantinople (324), location (Byzantium over Rome) reasons?

• new identity away from Roman elite

• closer to enemies to deal with them

• location is familiar since recent civil war was fought there

• at trade routes between Mediterranean and Black Sea

• waterway for crops

Constantine and infrastructure?

• improved and spread Christianity through churches

  • Hagia Eirene

Difference between Christianity and Roman religion?

• Christianity = monotheistic, less flexible, identity of religion separate from family/empire, rejection of traditional religious unity

• Roman = many gods, more acceptance

Christianity prior to Constantine I?

• in the East and Greek-speaking regions

• small population

  • growth from late 2nd century

Constantine’s religious policies?

• gave privileges to Christians

• severe restrictions on Jews

• public religious support

Constantine’s balancing act?

• coexistence of Pagans and Christians

• Christians given more privileges →blood sacrifices banned and no new pagan churches

What was early church organization and bishops like?

• bishops were chosen by the community

Council of Nicaea (325 CE)

• under Constantine to enforce unity

• concerns about imperial cohesion and debate about Christ’s nature and relation to God the Father

Result of the Council of Nicaea?

• Nicaean Creed (opposition to Arianism)

• Unified Easter date

Arianism

believing that Jesus Christ is below God and a separate created being, not unified

Impact of Martyrdom on Christianity

• inspiration, memory, strength in Christianity

What was Constantine’s Christian Legacy?

• ceremonial rule + church power unchallenged

• challenges in Christian unity

• polytheism continued

Why was Christian unity challenged?

emperors wanted societal/geopolitical order + wealth while bishops wanted divine truth

What was the transition to a Christian society like?

slow and complex

When did Christianization largely occur?

late 4th c. CE

Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE)

Christianity declared official religion of Rome under Theodosius

How did the role of bishops change in late Antiquity?

bishops become key powerbrokers

• provide charity, leadership, and authoirty

• challenged emperors

Inheritance after Constantine I’s death?

• sibling rivalry between Constantius II, Constantine II, and Constans

• all hold a share of power but die due to wanting more or being autocratic

• Constantius II becomes sole ruler

Constantius II death?

• ended possible civil war

• passed power over to cousin Julian

Julian (361-363)

• brief reign

• halted spread of Christianity

• started Persian war

Jovian (363-364 CE)

• brief reign after Julian

• tried to get Rome out of Persian war

  • gained territory

• imperial stability and Christianity increases

Valentinian I (364-375 CE)

• after Jovian’s rule

• co-emperor with Valens

Valens (364-378 CE)

• co-emperor with Valentinian I

• built Aqueduct of Valens

• infamous for Gothic Crisis

How were the Goths integrated into Roman society?

• long tradition of settling “barbarians” in the empire

• Christianity (Arianism) spread among Gothic groups

• increased cultural interaction across frontiers

• “Who’s Roman and who’s not?”

What caused sudden increase in integration of Goths in Roman territory?

• pressure from the Huns who migrated and began raiding Goths’ territory

Gothic Crisis and Valens (376)

• Valens allows Goths to cross into Danube river

• led to the Battle of Adrianople

• beginning of Gothic presence inside empire

Battle of Adrianople (378)

• Gothic uprising

• Valens killed along with Eastern Roman army

What did the Battle of Adrianople (378) reveal?

• resources overstretched due to Persian tensions and political instability

• failure to manage migration

• weakness in manpower, revenue, and command

• dependence on diplomacy toward “barbarian” groups

Gratian (367-383) and Valentinian II (375-392)

• favored Christianity over traditional Roman pagan practices and set up for Theodosius I

Theodosius I (379-395 CE)

• co-emperor with Gratian, ruled over the East

• ended Gothic War through peace talks

• made peace with Sassanid Empire (stabilized Eastern frontier)

• Edict of Thessalonica

• reshaped Constantinople with monumentalization

  • enforced imperial authority and Christianity

Theodosian Dynasty (379-457) key figures

• Theodosius I

• Honorius

• Theodosius II

• Marcian

Eastern and Western split in half formally? (395)

• separate military, administration, etc.

• decreased Rome’s influence as a city

• frontier pressure continues

• Eastern half is more stable and stronger > West

Influence of the Huns

• originated in central and eastern Asia →their migration triggered other migrations

• known for shock-tactics, speed, and flexibility

• destabilized frontiers

Alaric I (370-411)

• led group of Goths after Adrianople

• ally for Theodosius I →repelled Germanic tribes

• sought high rank within Roman army → never given →frustration and future invasion

Honorius (395-423)

• one of worst Roman emperors

• ruled over the West and depended on his general Stilicho

Honorius and Alaric I

• Stilicho pays Alaric to not invade him → Honorius executes him →Alaric invades Italy

410 Sack of Rome

• Alaric I led Visigoth invasion during Honorius’ reign

• took resources and Romans as prisoner → no widespread slaughter

Why was the Sack of Rome (410) significant even if there was no wide scale slaughter?

• Rome was culturally significant and “invincible”

• left the Empire in shock and showed destabilization of the West

Theodosius II (408-450 CE)

• controlled East and didn’t intervene directly with 410 Sack of Rome

  • indirectly → maintained communication with Alaric I for peace

• Codex Theodosius

• Theodosian Walls

Codex Theodosian

• set of laws under Theodosius II

• unified Roman law

• reinforced Christianity’s dominance

• shaped future legal systems in Europe

Theodosian Walls

• fortified Constantinople

• one of the most complex system of walls

What happens after Honorius’ (natural) death in 423?

• no heir

• East places emperor in the West → signals their growing power

How did the Huns influence Rome?

• dominant unified force which put pressure on Rome’s northern border

• intervened in regional politics and Roman affairs as BOTH enemies and allies

Attila the Hun (405-453 CE) (ruled in 435)?

• devastating campaigns in East and Western Empire

• Rome attempted to stop invasions through payment, but stopped at some point

  • Atilla invades Italy and heads to siege Constantinople

What happened when Atilla attempted to go siege Constantinople in 453

he dies and the Hunnic Empire falls

Major Events/Products of Hunnic expansions?

• 410 Sack of Rome

• 429-439: Vandals cross to Africa and take Carthage

• Hybrid kingdoms arose

• Emperors struggled to maintain their authority

Marcian (450-457 CE)

• eastern empire emperor

• Aspar’s puppet

• first occasion of power shift

In regards to power, what shifted in 5th c. CE?

power of highest ranking military officers grew greater than that of emperors

Magister Militum

highest ranking military officer

Leo I (457-474 CE)

• Aspar’s puppet

• attempted to resist him and was assassinated

Aspar (450-471 CE)

• Magister Militum

• first example of power shift

• controlled Marcian and Leo I

Ricimer (461-472 CE)

• Magister Militum

• controlled emperors in the West

  • Majorian, Libius Serverus, and Anthemius

• attempted to take throne and died soon after

Majorian (457-461 CE)

• Riciner’s puppet

• strong independent ruler who tried to separate from Riciner →wanted to reconquer North Africa

  • Riciner feared his plans and had him executed

Libius Severus (461-465 CE)

• Riciner’s puppet

• didn’t do anything notable → weaker than Majorian, purposefully so Riciner could control him

Anthemius (467-472 CE)

• Riciner’s puppet

• on good terms until he tried to be independent → captured and executed after

Orestes (475-476 CE)

• Magister Militum

• one of last Western Empire rulers

• placed his son Romulus Augustus on the throne and controlled him → complete shift in power dynamic by this point

• caused downfall of the West

What led to the downfall of the West?

• Orestes refused to give land to his Germanic troops led by Odoacer

• rebellion and the “puppet” relationship led to complete fall of the West

Theodoric the Great (King of Ostrogoths, King of Italy) (493-526 CE)

• was directed to invade Italy and take down Odoacer

  • negotiated joint-rule with him and then killed him

• blended Roman and Gothic rule

Justinian I (527-565 CE)

• last true Roman emperor

• learned about ruling from his uncle Justin I

• workaholic → ambitious and strong like a Roman

• building churches → wanted to spread Christianity across the globe

• Code of Justinian

• believed only Christianity could exist

• completed a campaign of re-conquest in the West (unification of Roman Empire)

Hagia Sophia

• built under Justinian I

• largest dome church

Code of Justinian

• sole source of law

• informed the Catholic Church’s canon law

• more standardized than previous versions

• expanded on Theodosian codex

Belisarius (500-565 CE)

• Justinian’s chief military commander

• responsible for his geo-political success (re-conquest)

• considered last true Roman general

The Justinianic Plague (541-544 CE)

• 1st wave of the First Plague Pandemic/Bubonic Plague (6th - 8th CE)

• Yersinia pestis bacteria spread from fleas and rats

• DEATH: 300,000+

Justin II (565-578)

• Justinian’s nephew

• end of Justinian golden era → shift to difficult state of survival in Byzantine empire

Arab/Muslim Conquests (620-750 CE)

• seized Rome’s key regions

• rise of Islamic political order over Roman influence

8th c. CE?

constant raiding and Byzantine Empire in defensive state

Carolingian Empire (814 CE)

• revived imperial rule in the West

• bridge between the ancient Roman world and medieval Europe