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Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Absolute Threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
just noticeable difference
difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli
Sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
Sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
Synesthesia
describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound")
Retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
Blind Spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
Visual nerve
carries the visual impulse out the back of the eye and into the brain for further processing.
Lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Nearsightedness
a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina
Farsightedness
a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina
Photoreceptors
Specialized light-sensitive neurons in the retina that convert light into neural impulses; includes rods and cones
Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
Cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
Trichromatic theory
theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green
Opponent-Process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
Afterimages
images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed
Ganglion Cells
In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.
Dichromatism
partial color blindness in which the eye contains only two types of cone photopigment instead of the typical three:
Monochramatism
partial color blindness in which the eye contains only one type of cone photopigment instead of the typical three
Prosopagnosia
inability to recognize faces
Blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
Wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.
Pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
Amplitude
the intensity or amount of energy of a wave, reflected in the height of the wave; determines a sound's loudness.
loudness
a sound's intensity
Pitch perception
the aspect of hearing that allows us to tell how high or low a given tone is
Place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
Volley theory
a theory that proposes that our brain decodes pitch by noticing the frequency at which groups of hair cells on the basilar membrane are firing
Sound localization
the process by which the location of sound is determined
conduction deafness
An inability to hear resulting from damage to structures of the middle or inner ear.
sensorineural deafness
deafness that results from damage to the auditory nerve
Olfactory system
the sensory system for smell
Thalamus
for all senses except olfaction, the information from the sensory neurons necessarily passes through this before reaching the primary sensory cortex.
Pheromones
Chemical signals released by an animal that communicate information and affect the behavior of other animals of the same species.
Gustation
sense of taste
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
5 taste sensations
oleogustus
the taste of fat
taste receptors
chemical receptors on the tongue that decode molecules of food or drink to identify them
supertasters
people with heightened sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations
medium tasters
50% of people have this level of taste sensitivity
nontasters
people who cannot detect bitter compounds except at very high concentrations
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
warm/cold receptors
Thermoreceptors detect temperature. Cold receptors are more numerous in the skin, and warm receptors are more numerous in deep tissue.
gate control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
phantom limb
perceived sensation, following amputation of a limb, that the limb still exists
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
semicircular canals
three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement
kinesthesis
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
jet lag
a period of discomfort and inefficiency while your internal clock is out of phase with your new surroundings
shift work & circadian rhythm
- as shift work is sometimes opposite to 'regular' hours, getting a full 8 hours sleep is hard
- fixed shifts are better for s/w cycle, but rotating night shifts generally better for social life and mental health
NREM stage 1 sleep
relaxation begins; EEG shows alpha waves; arousal is easy
NREM Stage 2
Irregular EEG with sleep spindles (short high-amplitude bursts); arousal is more difficult
NREM Stage 3
sleep deepens; theta and delta waves appear; vital signs decline
REM Sleep
a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity
activation-synthesis theory
a theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories
Consolidation of sleep theory
Sleep aids in the consolidation or formation of memories and learning
memory consolidation
the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes
REM Rebound
increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights
Restoration of resources
evolutionary theory of sleep holds that sleep is essential for restoration of resources that are expended during the demands of day-to-day life.
Insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
REM sleep behavior disorder
a neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams
Sleep Apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
somnambulism
sleepwalking
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