PSYCH275FINAL star

Motivation

set of factors that initiate, sustain, and direct behaviors

Instinct

complex behavior that is automatic, unlearned, and unmodifiable, occurring in all members of a species

Drive theory

body maintains a condition of homeostasis

Homeostasis

the state in which any particular system is in balance or equilibrium

Drive

an aroused condition

Incentive theory

people motivated by external stimuli, not just internal needs

Arousal theory

people behave in ways that keep them at preferred level of stimulation

Set point

point of homeostasis (or equilibrium) to which the system returns

Preoptic area

brain area in mammalian hypothalamus that contains separate warmth-sensitive and cold-sensitive cells

Thirst

dry mouth and throat influence when to drink, not how much to drink

Hypovolemic thirst

condition of thirst occurring when blood volume drops due to loss of extracellular water

Osmotic thirst

condition of thirst occurring when fluid content decreases inside body's cells

Subfornical organ (SFO)

brain structure adjacent to third ventricle that senses and regulates internal water balance with OVLT

Organum vasculosum lamina terminalis (OVLT)

brain structure adjacent to third ventricle that senses and regulates internal water balance with SFO

Circumventricular

outside blood-brain barrier with direct access to blood circulation

Osmoreceptor

fires more as volume decreases due to fluid loss

Median preoptic nucleus (MnPO)

brain structure adjacent to third ventricle that integrates information from SFO and OVLT

Angiotensin II

hormone that informs brain of drop in blood volume, stimulating receptors in SFO and OVLT

Satiety

the satisfaction of appetite

Herbivores

plant-eating animals

Carnivores

meat-eating animals

Omnivores

animals that eat both meat and plants

Sensory-specific satiety

behavioral pattern that means the more an individual eats a particular food item, the less appealing the food becomes

Learned taste aversion

avoidance of foods associated with illness or poor nutrition

Learned taste preference

preference not for a nutrient itself but for the flavor of food containing the nutrient

Area postrema

region in brain outside blood-brain barrier that induces vomiting if activated by toxins

Duodenum

initial 25 cm of the small intestine where most digestion occurs

Glucose

a simple sugar which is a common metabolic product of carbohydrate digestion

Amino acids

an end product of protein digestion

Fatty acids

an end product of fat digested in the intestine

Glycerol

an end product of fat digested in the liver

Absorption phase

the few hours after a meal when the body lives off the nutrients arriving from the digestive system

Insulin

hormone that enables body cells to take up glucose for energy and certain cells to store excess nutrients

Diabetes

condition that results when pancreas is unable to produce enough insulin (Type 1) or the body's tissues are relatively unresponsive to insulin (Type 2)

Glycogen

converted form of glucose stored in short-term reservoirs around body

Fasting phase

period in which blood glucose drops and the body falls back on its energy stores

Glucagon

hormone that causes liver and skeletal muscles to transform stored glycogen back into glucose

Arcuate nucleus (ARC)

master hypothalamic center for food intake control

Lateral hypothalamus

brain region that initiates eating and controls aspects of feeding behavior and metabolic responses

Orexin

neuropeptide that increases eating and increases wakefulness in response to food deprivation

Paraventricular nucleus (PVN)

brain region that regulates eating and metabolic processes

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

brain region that produces satiety and increases metabolism

Ghrelin

orexigenic peptide hormone synthesized in the stomach and released into bloodstream during fasting

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

peptide hormone that is best known satiety signal, released by stomach and small intestine as food passes into duodenum

Peptide YY3-36 (PYY)

peptide hormone released in intestines in response to food, suppressing appetite over longer period of time

Leptin

peptide hormone secreted by fat cells that inhibits eating

Body mass index (BMI)

quantifier of leanness or obesity calculated by dividing person's weight in kilograms by squared height in meters

Obesity gene

gene on chromosome 6 linked to obesity in mice, signified as ob

Diabetes gene

gene on chromosome 4 linked to obesity in mice, signified as db

Epigenetic

modifications to DNA that turn genes "on" or "off" without changing gene's DNA sequence

Basal metabolism

energy required to fuel brain and other organs and to maintain body temperature

Anorexia nervosa

eating disorder known as "starving disease" wherein the individual restricts food intake to maintain weight at a level so low it threatens health

Bulimia nervosa

eating disorder that also involves weight control, but the behavior is linked to bingeing and purging

Binge-eating disorder

eating disorder where individuals frequently eat large amounts of food during a short period of time, wherein they feel they cannot control what or how much they eat

Emotion

an increase or decrease in physiological activity accompanied by feelings that are characteristic of the emotion

Sympathetic nervous system

activates the body during arousal

Parasympathetic nervous system

shuts down the body following arousal

James Lange theory

emotional experience comes from physiological arousal that precedes it

Cognitive theory

belief that identity of an emotion is based on cognitive assessment of a situation

Mirror neurons

neurons that fire both when we engage in a specific act and while observing the same act in others

Limbic system

network of structures arranged around upper brain stem

Amygdala

small limbic system structure near lateral ventricle of temporal lobes

Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)

brain structure best known for roles in attention, decision-making, and impulse control

Stress

condition in environment that makes unusual demands on an organism

Leukocytes (white blood cells)

recognize invaders by the unique proteins (antigens) that every cell has on its surface and kills them

Macrophage

ingests invaders and displays foreign antigens / Ingest invaders; display antigens, which attract T cells

T cells

attracted by specific antigens / Multiply and attack invaders

B cells

produce antibodies that attack a particular cell type / Make antibodies, which destroy intruders

Natural killer cells

attack and destroy certain kinds of cancer cells and cells infected with viruses

Sudden cardiac death

excessive sympathetic activity with stress sends heart into fibrillation, contracting so rapidly that it pumps little or no blood

Congenital insensitivity to pain

rare genetic disorder of PNS in which people are unable to sense pain

Aggression

forceful or assertive behavior that is intended to harm or control another

Predatory aggression

aggression that occurs when an animal attacks and kills its prey or when a human makes a premeditated, unprovoked attack on another

Affective aggression

aggression characterized by its impulsiveness and emotional arousal

Proactive (instrumental) aggression

aggression that is unprovoked and emotionless, and is intended to bring about some gain for the aggressor

Reactive (impulsive) aggression

aggression that occurs in response to a threat, real or imagined, and is characterized by heightened emotionality

Testosterone

plays a role in animals and both male and female human aggression

Serotonin

conventionally inhibitory, suppressing motivated behaviors

Incidence

number of individuals that develop a condition across a specific amount of time (usually a year)

Prevalence

total count (or percentage) of people with a condition at a specific point in time

Schizophrenia

debilitating disorder characterized by perceptual, emotional, and intellectual deficits

Major depressive disorder

Sadness, hopelessness, decreased enjoyment, loss of energy and appetite, slow thought, sleep disturbance

Bipolar disorder

Alternating depression and either anxiety, irritation, or mania

Seasonal affective disorder

Depression that worsens in the winter and improves in the summer / pattern of depression that rises and falls with the seasons

Generalized anxiety disorder / Generalized anxiety

Feeling of stress and unease most of the time

Panic disorder

Sudden and intense attack of anxiety with no obvious trigger / sudden, intense anxiety attacks

Phobia

Fear or stress when confronted with a particular situation

Posttraumatic stress disorder / A prolonged stress reaction to a traumatic event

Prolonged stress reaction to a stressful event characterized by recurrent thoughts, images, nightmares, impaired concentration, and overreaction to sudden events

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Recurrent, uncontrollable thoughts (obsessions) paired with ritualistic behaviors that remove anxiety (compulsions)

Tourette syndrome

Involuntary motor and sound tics, grimaces, blinks, grunts, and imitation / A disorder where individuals produce a variety of motor and phonic (sound) tics

Borderline personality disorder

Unstable mood, self-image, anxiety, self-harm, and anger that leads to impulsive acts due to apparently common events

Vulnerability model

model of schizophrenia that asserts some threshold of causal forces must be exceeded for the illness to occur

Avolition/Apathy

lack of initiative to accomplish purposeful tasks

Alogia

inability to speak

Anhedonia

inability to feel pleasure

Affective Flattening

lacking full range of emotional expression

Asociality

lack of motivation to engage in social activities

Dopamine hypothesis

theory that schizophrenia involves high dopamine activity

Aberrant salience hypothesis

suggests that heightened levels of dopamine increase attentional and motivational circuits to make ordinary environmental features seem significant

Tardive dyskinesia

tremors and involuntary movements due to long-term blocking of dopamine receptors