SOCI Exam #3

Social stratification

The existence of structured inequalities between groups in society in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards. While all societies involve some forms of stratification, only with the development of state-based systems did wide differences in wealth and power arise. The most distinctive form of stratification in modern societies in class division

Intersectionality

A sociological perspective that holds that our multiple group memberships affect our lives in ways that are distinct from single group memberships. For example, the experience of a Black woman may be distinct from that of a White woman or Black man

Structured Inequalities

Social inequalities that result from patterns in the social structure

Slavery

A form of social stratification in which some people are owned by others as property

Caste

A social system in which one’s social status is held for life

Class systems

A system of social hierarchy that allows individuals to move among classes. The chief bases of class are income, ownership of wealth, education, occupation, and lifestyle

Class

Although it is one of the most frequently used concepts in sociology, there is no clear agreement about how the notion of class should be defined. Most sociologists use the term to refer to socioeconomic variations between groups of individuals that create variations in their material prosperity and power

Life chances

A term introduced by Max Weber to signify a person’s opportunities for achieving economic prosperity

Income

Money recieved from paid wages and salaries or earned from investments

Wealth

Money and material possessions held by an individual or group

Social Capital

Relational networks that provide a person with tangible resources (such as wealth) as well as intangible resources (such as personal connections when one seeks a job, or entrance into an elite university)

Cultural Capital

The accumulated cultural knowledge within a society that confers power and status

Means of production

The means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology but also the social relations between producers

Bourgeoisie

People who own companies, land, or stocks (shares) and use these to generate economic returns

Proletariat

People who sell their labor for wages, according to Karl Marx

Surplus Value

In Marxist theory, the value of a worker’s labor power left over when an employer has repaid the cost of hiring the worker

Communism

A social system based on everyone owning the means of production and sharing in the wealth it produces

Status

The social honor or prestige a particular group is accorded by other members of a society. Status groups normally display distinct styles of life— patterns of behavior that the members of a group follow. Status priviledge may be positive or negative.

Pariah groups

Groups who suffer from negative status discrimination— they are looked down on by most other members of society

Contradictory class locations

Positions in the class structure, particularly routine white-collar and lower managerial jobs, that share characteristics with the class positions both above and below them

Marxist theories to stratification

The exploitation of working classes in capitalist societies is the key to understanding social and economic inequality in the contemporary world

Weberian theories to stratification

Status and power are as important as class in our understanding of social and economic inequality

Functionalist theories to stratification

Inequality can be beneficial to society in so far as it inspires people to develop the skills and expertise necessary to excel at difficult jobs

Contradictory class locations

Theory developed by Erik Olin Wright

Professional workers in modern capitalist society occupy contradictory positions: They exert control over the working classes but remain subordinate to the upper classes

Upper class

A social class broadly composed of the more affluent members of society, especially those who have inherited wealth, own businesses, or hold large numbers of stocks (shares)

Middle class

A social class composed broadly of those working in white-collar and lower managerial occupations

Working class

A social class broadly composed of people working in blue-collar, or manual, occupations

Lower class

A social class comprising those who work part-time or not at all and whose household income is typically lower than $31,000 a year

Social mobility

Movement of individuals or groups between different social positions

Intergenerational mobility

Movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another

Intragenerational mobility

Movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career (individual)

Structural mobility

Mobility resulting from changes in the number and kinds of jobs available in a society

Exchange mobility

The exchange of positions on the socioeconomic scale such that talented people move up the economic hierarchy while the less talented move down

Absolute poverty

A state of poverty in which one lacks the minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence

Relative poverty

Poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority in any given society

Poverty line

An official government measure to define those living inpoverty in the US

Working poor

People who work but whose earnings are not enought ot lift them above the poverty line

Feminization of poverty

An increase in the proportion of the poor who are female

Homeless

People who have no place to sleep and either stay in free shelters or sleep in public places not meant for habitation

Kuznets curve

A formula showing that inequality increases during the early stages of capitalist development, then declines, and eventually stabilizes a a relatively low level; advanced by the economist Simon Kuznets

Culture of poverty

The thesis, popularized by Oscar Lewis, that poverty is not a result of individual inadequacies but instead the outcome of a larger social and cultural atmosphere into which successive generations of children are socialized. The culture of poverty refers to the values, beliefs, lifestyles, habits, and traditions that are common among people living under conditions of material deprivation

Dependency culture

A term popularized by Charles Murray to describe individuals who rely on state welfare provision rather than enetering the labor market. The dependency culture is seen as the outcome of the “paternalistic” welfare state that undermines individual ambition and people’s capacity for self-help

Globalization

The development of social and economic relationships stretching worldwide. In the current times, we are all influenced by organizations and social networks located thousands of miles away. A key part of the study of globalization is the emergence of a world system— for some purposes, we need to regard the world as forming a single order

Global inequality

The systematic differences in wealth and power between countries

Gross National Income (GNI)

A commonly used measure based on total income earned as a result of a country’s yearly output of goods and services, including income earned abroad

Capabilities approach

An approach to economic development that uses social indicators to emphasize the degree to which people are capable of achieving a life they value, given the opportunities they face

Neoliberalism

The economic belief that free-market forces, achieved by minimizing government restriction on business, provide the only route to ecnomic growth

Modernization theory

A version of neoliberal development that argues that low-income societies develop economically only if they give up their traditional ways and adopt modern economic institutions, technologies, and cultural values that emphasize savings and productive investment

Dependency theory

Marxist theories of economic development that argue that the poverty of low-income countries stems directly from their exploitation by wealthy countries and by the multinational corporations that are based in wealthy countries

Core countries

According to world-systems theory, the most advanced industrial countries, which take the lion’s share of profits in the world economic system

Peripheral countries

According to world-systems theory, countries that have a marginal role in the world economy and are thus dependent on the core countries for ntheir trading relationships

Colonialism

The process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories

Dependent development

The theory that poor countries can still develop economically, but only in ways shaped by their reliance on the wealthier countries

Global commodity chains

Worldwide networks of labor and production processes that extend from raw materials to the final consumer

Semiperipheral countries

According to world-systems theory, countries that supply sources of labor and raw materials to the core countries and the world economy and the world economy while at the same time profiting by extracting labor and raw materials from peripheral countries, but are not themselves fully industrialized societies

World-systems theory

Pioneered by Immanuel Wallerstein, this theory emphasizes the interconnections among countries based on the expansion of a capitalist world economy. This economy is made up of core, semipheripheral and peripheral countries

Global captialism

The current transnational phase of capitalism, characterized by global markets, production, and finance; a transnational capitalist class whose business concerns are global rather than national; and transnational systems of governance (such as the World Trade Organization) that promote global business interests

Transnational capitalist class

A social class whose economic interestsare global rather than national, who share a globalizing perspective and similar lifestyles, and who see themseleves as cosmopolitan citizens of the world

Emerging countries

Countries located primarily in the Global South, such as India and Singapore, that over the past three to four decades have begun to develop a strong industrial base

Graying

A term used to indicate that an increasing proportion of a society’s population is over 65

Older adults

Adults ages 65 and older

Population aging

The relatively faster growth of the older population compared to the younger population and the resulting shifts in the age distribution of the population toward older ages. Population aging is commonly measured as an increasing median age or a rising share of the population above a certain age, such as a 65

Social gerontology

The study of aging and older adults

Aging

The combination of biological, psychological, and social processes that affect people as they grow older

Alzheimer’s Disease

A degenerative disease of the brain resulting in progressive loss of mental capacity

Social aging

The norms, values, and roles that are culturally associated with a particular chronological age

Disengagement theory

A functionalist theory of aging that holds that it is functional for society to remove people from their traditional roles when they become older adults, thereby freeing up those roles for others

Socioemotional selective theory

The theory thata dults maintain fewer relationships as they age, but that those relationships are of higher quality

Activity theory

A functionalist theory of aging that holds that busy, engaged people are more likely to lead fulfilling and productive lives

Continuity theory

The theory that older adults’ well-being is enhanced when their activities are consistent with their personality, preferences, and activities earlier in life

Conflict theories of aging

Arguments that emphasize the ways in which the larger social structure helps shape the opportunities available to older adults. Unequal opportunities are seen as creating the potential for conflict

Life course

The various transitions and stages people experience during their lives

Disengagement theory

It is functional for societies to relieve older people of their social roles, thereby freeing up those positions for younger persons

Activity theory

Keeping older people busy and engaged allows them to lead productive lives, which can be functional for society

Continuity theory

Older adults’ well-being is enhanced when they are in soxial contexts that are consistent with their personality, preferences, and activities earlier in life

Critical theories

Many of the problems of aging— such as poverty, poor health, or inadequate health care— are systematically produced by the routine operation of social institutions

Life course perspectives

Aging processes are shaped by structural factors like economic shifts, and aspects of personal agency, like aspirations

Young old

Ages 65 to 74

Old

75 to 84

Oldest old

85 and older

Cohort

A group of individuals who were born during the same time period, and thus share a similar pattern of historical experiences from childhood to adult life

Social Security Medicare

A federal program in the US that provides retirement benefits and disability income to qualified people and their spouses, children, and survivors

Emotional loneliness

The absence of an intimate confidant

Social loneliness

The absence of a broader social network

Ageism

Discrimination or prejudice against a person on the grounds of age

Old-age dependency ratio

The number of people ages 65 and older, divided by the number of persons ages 18 to 24

AARP (American Association of Retired Persons)

US advocacy group for people age 50 and older

Generational equity

The striking of a balance between the needs and interests of members of different generations