PSYC3202 - Industrial Psychology

kms

Building blocks of organisational design

Formalisation, centralisation, departmentalistion, span of control

Centralisation definition

degree to which deicison making is concentrated at a single point within an organiation

Centralisation advantages

clear chain of command, allows for oversight and control

Centralisation disadvantages

slow, less adaptable

Departmentalisation definition

basis by which jobs are grouped together

Departmentalisation groupings based on…

• Function

• Product

• Process/Customer

• Geography

Departmentalisation advantages

increased operational efficiency, clear accountability, and structured support for business growth

Departmentalization disadvantages

frequently creates communication barriers, operational "silos," and resource duplication

Formalisation

degree to which jobs within orgnization are standardized

Formalization advantages

easier training and onboarding, consistency in customer experience, role clarity

Formalization disadvatanges

rigidities that stifle creativity, slow down decision-making with bureaucratic red tape, and reduce overall employee autonomy

Span of Control definition

number of subordinates a manager can effectivelry oversee

Wide Span - Span of Control

cost-effecftive and encourages autonomy, but less individualized mentorship

Narrow Span - Span of Control

Closer supervision, individual considerations; but slow, increased costs, and risk of micromanagement

Two extreme models of organisational design

Mechanistic models and organic model

Mechanistic model

• High specialisation

• Rigid departmentalisation

• Clear chain of command

• Narrow spans of control

• Centralisation

• High formalisation

Organic model

• cross-functional teams

• cross-hierarchical teams

• free flow of information

• wide spans of control

• decentralisation

• low formalisation

Contextual factors in org design

stategy, organisational size, technology, environmental factors

Strategy — contextual factor in org design

innovation (organic) vs cost-monimization (mechanistic) vs imitaation (mixed)

Organisational size - contextual factors in org design

shift away from organic to mechanistic with growth

Technology - contextual factors in org design

organic often better when technology rapidly evolving

Environmental factors - contextual factors in org design

mechanistic often more common when external landscape more complex

Organisational Culture

• ‘vibe’ or ethos of an organization

• assumptions that members of an org may have which affect their thinking, act, and perception of environment

• collective knowledgge reflecting how organization has learned to exist

Org Culture Importance

• shapes employee behaviours + company direction

• certain cultures associated with better formance

• other cultures associated with higher employee satisfaction

Functions of culture

• defines boundarues - differentiates one org from another

• provides identity - fosters sense of belonging within org

• enhances commitment - dvlps loyalty to org

• clarifies behaviour - sets workplace behaviour standards

• shapes atttitude - influences employee mindsets and actions in workplace

Schein’s Iceberg model (1985)

• Artifacts - observable symbols and behaviours

• Values - shared beliefs and objectives

• Assumptions - deep-seated, often unconscious beliefs

How is culture formed and maintained?

• leadership

• selection

• socialisation/onboarding

• reward systems

Attraction-Selection-Attrition Model (Scheider et al, 1995)

companies attract and retain people aligned with their values, while those misaligned tend to depart

Hatch’s Model of Cultural Dynamics (1993)

Symbols → Assumptions → Values → Artifacts → Symbols (REPEAT! CYCLE!)

ex: customer service culture [Hatch’s Model of Cultural Dynamics]

prioritise customer service in training (symbols) → internalised belief in importance of customer service (assumptions) → customer-centric vision and policies (values) → less formalised structure, autonomous decision making (artifacts)

ex: creating an ethical culture [Hatch’s Model of Cultural Dynamics]

Role modelling + communication from leadership + reward [symbol] → employee believe ethical conduct valued [assumptions] → value transparency + accountability [values] → code of confuct, confidential reporting [artifacts]

Culture as a liabilty

• Impediment to change

• Obstacle to mergers + acquisitions

• Barrier to diversity

Organisational Climate

How employees perceive policies, practices, and procedures within an organization

Individual’s perception of climate

psychological climate

Culture vs Climate

• Culture

  • ethnological/anthropological research tradition

  • target organisations

  • focus on underlying assumptions

  • qualitative methodology

  • long-term time span

  • perspective that organisations have one

• Climate

  • psychological research tradition

  • targets individuals

  • focus on observable manifestations

  • quantitative methodology

  • short-term time span

  • perspective that organisations have many

Hatch’s Model Extended

Added artifacts → climate → behaviour → artifacts alongside basic cycle

Recruitment

Process of attracting potential employees to the organisation

Selection

Process of evaluating potential employees and deciding who gets offered employment

Beyond just securing talent, need to also…

• Serve public relations function

• Form psychological contract

• Start socialisation process

Consequence of Poor Practices

• Lower employee motivation and performance

• Higher turnover

• Reduced company profits

• Higher recruitment and training expenses

• Legal ramifications

Role of I/O psychologists

• workforce planning

• fairness evaluation

• job analysis

• process improvement

• test battery creation

• data utilisation

• research

Selection Steps

• Job Analysis

• Develop Strategy

• Execute Process

• Evaluate Process

Predicting success

Predictors: knowledge, skills, abilities, other attributes, background, interests

Criteria (Outcomes): job performance, longevity, attendance, development potential

Reliability

Degree of dependabilty, consistency, or stability of scores on a measure

Alt forms:

• Internal consistency

• Test-retest reliability

• Inter-rater reliability

Validity

The accuracy and appriopriateness of a tool or method in measuring what it intends to measure

ex: construct, face, cotent, convergent, divergent, criterion-related

Selection Steps: In Detail

• Job Analysis

• Advertising the position

• Primary screening

• Secondary screening

• Job offers

• Post-hire evaluation

Primary screening tools

• Resume or CV

• Reference check

• Application forms

• Weighted application bank

Biographical Data Questionnaire or Biographical Information Blank (BIB)

Covers variety of topics such as educational experriences, hobbies, family relations, leisure time, personal health, and early work experiences

Drakeley (1989)

Classification of biodata, background data, commitment data, and achievement data

Abilities Testing pros vs cons

Advantages:

• High predictive validity

• Defendable

• Impression-proof

• Cost-effective

Disadvantages:

• Possibility of bias

Examples: abstract reasoning, numerical abilities, verbal comprehension

Assessing verbal reasoning

Assesses the candidate’s demonstrated understanding of vocabulary, analogies, synonyms, and antonyms

Numerical Reasoning

Assesses candidate’s demonstrated understanding of numerical sequences, arithmeitical reasoning, and number matrices

Abstract reasoning

Measures a candidate’s ability to make sense of complex situations, create meaning out of ambiguity or confusion, and perceive and think clearly

Personality testing

General tests: 16PF, Eysenck, NEO-PIR Hogan’s Personality Inventory, Minnesota Multi-phasic

Workplace Specific tests: occupational personality questionnaire

Challenges: profile matching, impression management, candidate reactions

The Five-Factor Model

• Openness

• Conscientiousness

• Extroversion

• Agreeableness

• Neuroticism

Other assessments

• Mental health assessments (DASS21)

• Emotional Intelligence (MSCEIT)

• Interests (ex: Myer briggs)

• Integrity testing (HEXACO model)

Interviews

Unstructured: informal meeting/chat

Structured: follows protocol with set questions + rating scales

• Advantages of structures

  • Higher validity

  • based on job analysis

  • ensures consistency + job revelance

  • may yield more genuine responses

Assessment Centres

Series of tailored exercises and tests designed to evaluaste candidates against specific selection criteria

Activities:

• leaderless group acitivites

• In-basket techniques

• Work sample or simulation

• Case analyses or business games

Gamification of Selection Tools (Baumert, Schlosser, and Schmitt [2014])

• Using economic games that involve decision making regarding compensation, rejection, and punishment

• results reveal individual differences in altruism and fairness

• strong correlations between altruism and fairness scores, self-report scores on these dispositions

• results support psychometric properties of using economic games

features of optimal employee selection

• realiability

• validity

• legality defensible

• cost-effective

issues of optimal employee selection

• who should administer tests?

• privvacy issues

• changing demographics

• applicant reactions

• changing ideas of job performance

• technology

performance appraisal

review of employee’s performance to assess effectiveness and identify dvlp areas

• features of:

  • 360-degree feedback

  • clear performance indicators and objectives

  • proactive performance management

elements of effective performance appraisal

• 360 degree feedback

• clear performance indicators and objectives

• proactive performance management

• robust assessment of performance indicators

• training for the appraisers

• multiple evaluations

• appraiser accountability

• frequent appraisals

• used for feedback + HR decisions

• continious review and revision

Training definition

A planned effort by an organisation to facilitate employees learning, retention, and transfer of job-related behaviours (e.g., formal qualifications, induction)

Development definition

An effort to equip employees with skills and experiences valuable
beyond their current role to throughout their career (e.g., mentoring, secondment, workshops, acting up)

Relationship between Job Analysis and Performance Appraisal

Job Analysis → Performance Appraisal, Selection and Training
• Performance Appraisal and Selection can also inform Training and Development
• Training and Development can be used in many areas (e.g.
communication, teamwork, leadership, task specific skills/knowledgeetc.)
• To be effective training must be a continuous process

Areas of application for training

New employee
orientation/onboarding
Retraining and continuing
education programs
Retirement planning and
preparation
Employee career development
Training workers for
international assignments
Training in diversity issues,
harassment, and ethical
behaviour
Team training

Bell et al (2017) - Science of Training

Increasing cumulative number of training articles over the years

Classic Training Process

• Assess training needs → establish training objectives → design & test training programs → implement training program → evaluate training program

  • consider conditions of training

  • consider modes of delivery

  • consider transfer of training

    • to be successful, training process should follow a rational design that’s clearly linked to job analysis and incorporate theories and principles of adult learning

Steps of training & development

1. Training Needs Analysis
2. Establish Objectives
3. Design & Test Program
4. Implement Program
5. Evaluate Training Program

Organisational analysis strategies

Align training with organizational goals,
assess management support, and consider logistics

Job/Task analysis

understand nature of various jobs, list necessary skills and identify gaps

Person analysis

identify who needs training, assess current skill levels and understand attitudes toward training

Steps for training needs analysis

1. Organisational Analysis
• Determining whether training is a viable solution to organisational problems
and where in the organisation training should be directed
2. Task Analysis
• Identifying the duties and tasks of the job and the KSATI’s needed to perform
them
• Also involves identifying which components of the job should be targeted for
training
3. Person Analysis
• Identifying which individuals within an organisation should receive training
• Demographic analyses
• Tailoring training to the trainees

Needs Assessment Steps

• What training need to accomplish

  • in terms of org’s goals?

  • in terms of specific work tasks?

  • in terms of people involved?

    • essentially, organisation + task/job + individual

Type of data for needs assessment

• training outcomes

• competency assessment

• gap analysis

• incident reports

• customer feedback

• surveys

• interviews

Factors to consider in Pre-Training environment

Individual Differences: What do learners bring to the training
environment?
Environmental Support: Is training valued?
Framing of the Training: Is it basic or advanced?

Objectives should be….

• Concrete
• Precise
• Measurable
• Specific

Factors that influence success of training

• Encoding – optimal cognitive load
• Memory – learning schema formation
• Constructive processes – interactivity
• Feedback – provide guidance

Declarative Knowledge Definition

• Knowledge about facts and things
• Involves memorising and reasoning processes
• Attention devoted to understanding the task
• Performance is slow and error prone

Procedural Knowledge Definitoon

• Knowledge about how to perform the task
• The skill has become automated
• Can perform the task efficiently with little attention
• Can use information to solve problems

Types of feedback

• Critic function – what was ‘wrong’
• Instructive function – ‘constructive’ feedback
• Combined – both

Praxis defition

action with reflection or learning by doing

Needs assessment Definition

participation of the learners in naming what is to be learned.

Kolb’s learning styles

posits that knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. His model features a continuous 4-stage learning cycle: Concrete Experience (feeling/doing), Reflective Observation (watching), Abstract Conceptualization (thinking), and Active Experimentation (trying/applying)

Types of training methods

On-Site Training
• On-the-job training
• Job rotation
• Vestibule training
• Apprentice training

Off-Site Methods
• Lectures, conferences,
seminars/workshops
• Debriefing
• Simulations
• Web-based
training/programmed
instruction
• Behaviour modelling training

Managerial Training Methods definition

• Developmental assessment centres
• Problem-solving case study
• Management/business games
• Role playing
• Conference/group discussion
• Mentoring/coaching
• Cross-cultural training

Strategies for onboarding new hires

• communicating information about the job and the organization
• acquiring essential job and safety skills
• typical norms and attitudes that fit into the organization’s culture
• understanding how things get done within the organizational
structure
• making clear who does what within the organization

Possible issues for implementing program

• Motivation and readiness
• Familiarity among participants
• Trust in the trainer
• Tuckman’s model
• Pre- and post-training context

Trainee Motivation definition

degree learner is motivated to gain KSAs or to succeed in the training

Expectancy theory definition

Aim to increase trainee expectancy, instrumentality
and valence.

Valence definition [expectancy theory]

attractiveness of an outcome

Instrumentality definiton [expectancy theory]

perceived relationship between performance and the outcome

Expectancy definition [expectancy theory]

perceived relationship between effort and performance

Self-Efficacy definiton

• Personal expectations of competence
• Types of expectations

• outcome expectations (VIE – Instrumentality)

• Efficacy expectations (VIE – Expectancy)

Contextual factors definition and influences

Learning climate and post-training
environment
• Contextual Influences
• Pre-training environment
• E.g., Learning climate (climate for transfer)
• E.g., Perceptions of training
• Post-training environment
• E.g., Supervisor support

Colquitt et al (2000) - Training Motivation

Age → Valence → Motivation to Learn → Learning Outcomes → Transfer → Job Performance

Kirkpatrick-Katzell 1994 Training Evaluation

1. Reaction - The feeling of the trainees toward the course
2. Learning - The expression of the KSAs at the end of the training
3. Behaviour - The transfer of the KSAs to the work environment
4. Results - The impact of the training on wider organisational objectives / ROI

Training Evaluation Reaction Criteria

• Internal to the training program
• Feelings of employees
• Short-term criteria
• Assessment methods include
surveys

Training evaluation Learning criteria

• Internal to the training program
• What has been learned
• Short-term criteria
• Assessment methods include tests
of knowledge and skill
demonstration