Anatomy exam 3

nutrient pool

material available in the bloodstream for use as energy or building blocks of more complex structures

metabolism

total chemical and physical processes in the body

catabolism

processes that BREAKDOWN complex structures and RELEASE energy (-lysis)

Anabolism

process that BUILD UP complex structures and STORE energy (-genesis)

glycolysis

multistep BREAKDOWN of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), release energy, anaerobic, occurs in cytoplasm

gluconeogenesis

MAKE glucose from other materials, glycolysis in reverse

costs protein, fat, or another carb, gain a glucose

Glycogenolysis

breakdown glycogen into glucose and release energy m

glycogenesis

make glycogen from glucose and stores energy

Oxidation

chemical reaction where electrons are donated

reduction

chemical reaction where electrons are gained

aerobic

reactions that require the presence of oxygen

anaerobic

reactions that do not require the presence of oxygen

absorptive state

period immediately following meals in which an abundance of macronutrients promote energy storage through anabolism

post-absorptive state

periods of fasting where nutrient and energy availability is provided through catabolism of existing energy and nutrient stores

carbohydrates

molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and energy

starches and sugars like glucose

NADH and FADH2

coenzymes that act as electron acceptors and carry electrons from metabolic processes to be used in the electron transport chain

cellular respiration

overall reaction that converts glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water while releasing energy in the form of ATP molecules

cellular respiration costs

one glucose

cellular respiration gains

about 32 ATP

waste products of cellular respiration

carbon dioxide and water

cellular respiration formula

C6H12O6 + O2 —> CO2 + H2O

For every one glucose in cellular respiration what is the production?

2 pyruvate, 2 net ATP, 2 NADH

glycogen

polysaccharide chain found in animals that acts as a way to store excess glucose for later use

Lactic acid fermentation

converts pyruvate into lactic acid, recycles an NADH, glycolysis can continue even when oxygen supplies are low

Citric acid cycle

aerobic process, occurs in mitochondrion

Citric acid cycle gains

NADH, FADH2, CO2, ATP

citric acid cycle costs

a pyruvate and goes around twice for each one

electron transport chain

loses energy as electrons travel through, aerobic process

electron transport chain gain

most of your ATP

electron transport chain costs

NADH and FADH2

lipolysis

breakdown of lipids (fat) into useable forms such as pyruvate and acetyl CoA for the citric acid cycle, release energy

lipogenesis

synthesis of new lipids (make fat), store energy

triglycerides

the most common form of circulating lipids and are made from a combination of a glycerol head and 3 fatty acid tails, can be used as an energy source, detectable in the bloodstream, saturated or unsaturated

Where is glycerol converted into pyruvate?

cytosol

How are fatty acid tails converted into acetyl-CoA?

beta oxidation

cholesterol

basis for many steroid hormones, made in liver or absorbed during digestion, excreted in bile salts, important starting material for steroids

HDL (high density lipoprotein)

good cholesterol, complex of lipids and protein that remove excess cholesterol

LDL

bad cholesterol, complex of lipids and protein that delivers cholesterol to the body

How many different amino acids are there?

How many amino acids are essential?

10, 8 of which we cannot make on our own

What are proteins used for?

energy, enzymes, and structures

How can proteins be altered?

adding or removing ammonia

Catabolism of amino acids

produces ammonia as a toxic byproduct, ammonium ions are then incorporated with CO2 into urea through the urea cycle, urea is a less toxic nitrogenous waste product that is excreted in the urine

Transamination in amino acid catabolism

amino group of one amino acid is transferred to a keto acid

deamination in amino acid catabolism

amino group is removed and an ammonium ion is released

urea cycle

takes 2 metabolic waste products, ammonium ions and carbon dioxide, and produces urea, a soluble compound that is excreted in the urine

animation of amino acid synthesis

an ammonium ion is used to form an amino group that is attached to a molecule, yielding an amino acid

macronutrients

carbs, lipids, proteins

micronutrients

remaining minerals, vitamins, and organic compounds needed in the diet, needed in much smaller quantities

electrolytes

water soluble ions, critical in action potentials, muscles, neurons, EKG

sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium

Minerals

included in electrolytes as well as cofactors like iron, zinc, copper, manganese, cobalt, selenium, and chromium

vitamins

coenzymes needed for a variety of functions

water soluble vitamins

Bs and C, frequently lost through urination

fat soluble vitamins

A, D, E, and K, can be stored in significant quantities in adipose tissue

basal metabolic rate (BMR)

daily energy requirements to support metabolism, can be affected by activity level primarily through changes in body composition (amount of skeletal muscle)

How do endotherms maintain body temperature?

through metabolism

kilocalorie

amount of energy required to raise 1kg of water by 1 degree C

4 ways heat is lost

conduction, evaporation, radiation, convection

conduction

loss of heat directly into a surface in direct contact, physical contact with solid (concrete) or liquid

evaporation

heat lost through water has it changes state from liquid to gas

radiation

heat loss through infrared waves into the environment, direct transfer regardless of material

convection

transfer to heat into surrounding air currents, passing air molecules

thermogenesis

generate some heat, shivering and brown fat

shivering

metabolic activity from muscle contraction

brown fat

metabolically active adipose (infants)

What happens in the body in a cold environment?

deep veins dilate, superficial veins constrict, heat is pulled towards core

What happens with superficial veins dilate and deep ones constrict?

body loses heat

what happens when superficial veins constrict and deep ones dilate?

body conserves heat

counter-current flow

alters the amount of heat retention or loss by concentrating heat at the core of the body or dissipating it towards the superficial surface, reabsorb tons of salt and water back into the bloodstream, concentrate wastes in the urine

Benefits of exercise on calories

calories are burned during activity and burned to maintain/repair musculature

overweight

BMI>25

obese

BMI>30

urinary system functions

remove metabolic wastes from the body while maintaining appropriate fluid and solute balance

urination/micturition

release of urine from the body

kidney

organ where urine is formed, found in the retroperitoneal space (posterior to the abdomen)

Which kidney is lower?

right is lower then left

What are the kidneys divided into

outer cortex and an inner medulla

What are kidneys covered by?

fibrous renal capsule

What can the medulla be divided into?

renal pyramids and renal columns

What do renal lobes include?

a single pyramid and surrounding columns and cortex

renal papilla

tip of pyramid, drains newly formed urine into the minor calyx

What do minor calyces join to form?

major calyx

What do major calyces join to form?

renal pelvic where urine enters the ureter

renal hilum

includes the proximal ureter as well as the renal artery and vein

Blood flow in the body

abdominal aorta, renal arteries, segmental arteries, interlobar arteries, arcuate
arteries, cortical radiate arteries, afferent arterioles, glomeruli, efferent arterioles,
peritubular capillaries/vasa recta, venules, cortical radiate veins, arcuate veins, interlobar veins, renal veins, inferior vena cava

nephron

functional unit within the kidney where filtration, secretion, and reabsorption occur

What does the nephron start with?

renal corpuscle where the glomerular capsule surrounds the glomerulus

What is filtrate pushed through in the nephron?

fenestrated pores and filtration slits into the capsular space

What are filtration slits formed by in the nephron?

spaces in between the podocytes along the glomerulus

Where are cortical nephrons found?

mostly in the cortex

where are juxtamedullary nephrons found?

next to the medulla

what is the nephron mainly lined by?

simple cuboidal cells which regulate secretion and reabsorption

proximal convoluted tubule in nephron

filtrate passes through here, reabsorbs sodium, water and glucose, secretes hydrogen ions (acid), and makes bicarbonate (buffer)

transporters in nephron

exchange pump, cotransporter, countertransport, leak channels

exchange pump

uses energy to pump ions against gradient

cotransporter

piggybacks one solute with another

countertransport

exchanges one solute with another

leak channel

facilitates diffusion

descending nephron loop

water is permeable, fluid in tube passes through here, thin

ascending nephron loop

water impermeable, pumps Na+ and Cl- out of the tube, thick and transports solutes