Chapter 4. Writing as a Process and as a Product: How to Teach and Assess Writing in the Second Language

Writing

A challenging and complex skill that requires staying focused on the topic sentence or thesis statement and being meticulous in polishing the paper in terms of grammar and structure.

Teaching writing

The process of equipping oneself with knowledge and skills in the nature, process, and strategies of writing in order to effectively teach it to others.

Writing as a complex process

A difficult and demanding task for students to master, often attributed to the emphasis on reading instruction as a preparation among language pre-service teachers.

Digital technology and writing

The changing context of communication through social media networks, which can be both a blessing and a distress for teachers due to the vast writing opportunities and modalities it provides.

Writing as a means of communication

The most effective means of promoting and perpetuating an idea, as it leaves a document for audiences to critique and can be used to preserve and perpetuate indigenous knowledge, skills, and traditions.

Purposes of teaching writing

Reinforcement, language development, learning style, and as a skill of its own.

Writing as a cognitive ability

Viewing writing as a cognitive ability involves considering both the writing ability and linguistic proficiency of the learner.

Writing as a sociological phenomenon

Recognizing that writing is done for a purpose, directed at a specific audience, and shaped by a particular culture and setting.

Writing as a product

Focusing on the students' output and correctness of grammar or structure, often using genre-based writing approaches.

Writing as a process

Taking into account the different stages of writing, including pre-writing, organizing ideas, writing the draft, revising, and editing.

Subject, audience, and purpose in writing

Considering the idea or topic, the intended audience, and the purpose of the writing in order to effectively communicate the message.

Recursive writing process

The process of going back and forth between the student and the teacher for feedback and revision, emphasizing that writing is never perfect and always open to revision.

Mechanics of Writing

The foundational skills and knowledge required for writing, including letter recognition, letter discrimination, sound-to-letter correspondence, word recognition, and basic spelling rules.

Meaning-based Writing System

A writing system, such as Chinese and Japanese Kanji, where the graphic character represents real-world meaning.

Sound-based Writing System

A writing system, such as English, that uses the alphabet where the symbol represents a sound.

Writing Syllabus

A plan for teaching writing that considers factors such as feasible scope of writing tasks, promoting academic integrity, suitable scaffolding, specified topic, genre, and purpose, clear rubric of evaluation, and reasonable set of deadlines.

Learning Outcomes

Specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound objectives for writing instruction that specify the context, teaching methods, and monitoring and evaluation of performance.

Motivated Writing

A strategy where the teacher writes in front of children, creating the text, thinking aloud about writing strategies and skills, and providing the most support.

Shared Writing

A strategy where the teacher and children create the text together, with the teacher doing the actual writing while the children assist by spelling words.

Interactive Writing

A strategy where the teacher and children create the text together and share the pen to do the writing, while also discussing writing conventions.

Guided Writing

A strategy where the teacher presents a structured lesson and supervises as children write, teaching a writing procedure, strategy, or skill.

Independent Writing

A strategy where children use the writing process to write stories, informational books, and other compositions, with the least support from the teacher.

Writing Genres

Narrative, informative, and argumentative genres that can guide the organization of writing lessons.

Reading-Writing Connection

The use of reading materials to provide context and content for writing, encouraging learners to read model texts and analyze, react, or reflect on them.

Strategy Instruction

Teaching students strategies in each stage of the writing process to reflect on their writing habits, employ writing processes independently, and use scaffolds like model texts and writing templates.

Peer or Collaborative Writing

Engaging students in peer editing, collaborative writing activities, or writing workshops to develop awareness of audience-readers and receive feedback on their written outputs.

Multi-modal texts

Texts that incorporate different modes of communication, such as images, videos, and audio, in addition to written text.

Word processors

Computer software or applications that allow users to create, edit, and format text documents.

Internet writing practices

Writing practices that are supported and enhanced by the use of the internet, such as online collaboration, research, and publication.

Editing features

Tools and functions in word processors that allow users to revise and correct their written work for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.

Authentic readers

Real-life individuals who read and engage with a student's writing, often through social networks or online platforms.

Scaffolds in teaching writing

Supportive tools, strategies, or activities that help students develop their writing skills.

Prewriting activities

Activities that help students generate ideas and plan their writing before they start drafting.

Freewriting

A prewriting technique where students write continuously without restrictions or limitations.

Questioning

A prewriting technique where students ask and answer questions to generate ideas for their writing.

Clustering

A prewriting technique where students group related ideas around a central topic or concept.

Listing

A prewriting technique where students create a list of relevant ideas without worrying about the order of importance.

RAFT Model

A writing planning model that helps students consider their Role, Audience, Format/genre, and Topic when writing.

W-W-W +2 WHAT + 2 HOW

A planning strategy for writing short stories that prompts students to consider Who, When, Where, What, and How in their writing.

CREW Model

A writing model that emphasizes the articulation of a writer's Claim, Reason, Evidence, and Warrant in an argumentative piece of writing.

STOP & DARE Model

A planning model for persuasive and argumentative writing that prompts students to Suspend judgment, Take a side, Organize ideas, and Plan more as they write.

Five-paragraph essay

A structured essay format consisting of an introductory paragraph, three body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph.

Cinquain

A poetic genre that follows a specific formula of lines and syllables to create a poem.

List poems

Poems that are created by listing down an inventory of persons, places, objects, or ideas.

Writing prompts

Statements, questions, or triggers that inspire and guide students in their writing.

Formative evaluation

Ongoing, informal assessment that monitors students' progress and provides feedback for improvement.

Summative evaluation

Assessment that gauges students' level of competence against a set standard or criteria.

Assessment vs

Assessment refers to a broader, more comprehensive evaluation of students' writing abilities, while testing often refers to more traditional, standardized methods of evaluation.

Reflective writing

Writing that encourages students to think deeply and critically about their own thoughts, experiences, and learning.

Written comments

Feedback provided by teachers through written comments on students' written work, either on the text itself or in the margins.

Individual conference

A feedback session where the teacher assists the student writer in every stage of the writing process, focusing on compliance with the given task and developing ideas that support the topic statement.

Recorded feedback

An alternative conferencing method where the teacher audio-records comments for students to listen and follow, useful for big classes or when technology is available.

Observation

Monitoring the learner's writing habits, problems in executing the process, and interaction with peers during collaborative or peer writing activities.

Collection of writing samples

Gathering written outputs in a portfolio, including drafts, final output, best-written output, and worst-written output, for learners to reflect on their development as a writer.

Anecdotal/keeping records

Teacher's comments on observed or read evidence of learning from students' outputs.

Writing Checklists

Assessment tools for students and teachers to evaluate if the outputs have responded to given prompts or defined objectives.

Focus on specific aspect or competency

Strategy that requires teachers and students to agree on target competencies to focus on, such as vocabulary, spelling, mechanics, or subject-verb agreement.

List of written symbols

Codes used by teachers to correct errors, including SP for spelling error, WO for word order error, P for punctuation error, T for tense error, WW for wrong word, " for missing word, [ ] for incorrect word, WF for word form error, ~ for combining two words into one, and / for run-on sentences.

Peer correction and feedbacking

Time-efficient strategy that promotes self-regulation in writing, where students assess their classmates' work based on what they thought was good, what they did not fully understand, what could be improved, and how.

Utilize technology

Using word processors with editing features, software like Turnitin and Grammarly to detect errors and plagiarism, and encouraging learners to use these technologies.

Timely feedbacking

Providing feedback in a timely manner to allow students to reflect on mistakes, seek clarification, and solicit suggestions for improvement.

Rubrics

Assessment tools that define criteria to be evaluated and the rate given to each criterion, helping teachers evaluate learners' performance.

Holistic rubric

A rubric that assesses the output based on a single scale for all criteria, time-efficient but lacks specific feedback for improvement.

Trait rubric

A rubric in matrix form with criteria listed on the first column and levels of performance identified on the other columns, providing specific feedback and helpful for learners in improving their work.