Exam 1

What is child development?

child development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through life

Why is studying child development important?

* Early experiences have profound effects on development 
* Development involves interaction of maturation and experience 
* Development proceeds toward greater complexity
* All areas (domains) of development are important 
* Development influenced by social + cultural context

What are the developmental process (domains) in child development?

* biological processes
* cognitive processes
* socioemotional processes

Biological processes

* Changes in body such as height/weight, motor skills
* Body size and proportions, appearance, functioning of body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, health

Cognitive Processes

* Changes in thought, intelligence, and language
* Intellectual abilities

Socioemotional processes

* Changes in emotions, personality, and relationships
* Emotional communication, self-understanding, knowledge about other people, interpersonal skills, friendships, relationships, moral reasoning and behavior

Nature/nurture

textbook

Timing of experiences

textbook

Continuity + discontinuity

Cohort effects

* Influences of historical experiences on developmental outcomes
* Baby boomers: 1943-1964
* Generation X: 1965-1979
* Millennials (Generation Y): 1980-2000
* Generation Z: 2001-2013
* Generation Alpha: 2010-2025
* textbook?

What is a theory?

A theory is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and make predictions

What are the theories of child development?

* Psychosexual (Freud)


* Psychosocial (Erikson)


* Behavioral (subcategory is operant conditioning proposed by Skinner)
* Social cognitive (Bandura)
* Cognitive developmental (Piaget)

Psychosexual

* proposed by Sigmund Freud
* a staged theorist; believed that behavior occurred in set periods of time
* placed emphasis on: early life experience, unconscious thought, emotion/personality, and developmental stages

Psychosocial

* proposed by Erik Erikson
* key elements of this theory include: stages of development, continuous lifespan development, crisis at each stage of the development, interaction (individual needs + social demands)

Behavioral

places emphasis on: observable behavior, cause/effect learning, and continuity that is not based on stages

Behavioral: operant conditioning

* proposed by B.F. Skinner
* key elements of operant conditioning: behavior is externally motivated (some reward must be involved to continue a specific type of behavior, humans are not self-willed, and development occurs through a process of external reinforcement

Social Cognitive

* proposed by Albert Bandura


* placed emphasis on: observational learning, modeling, and reciprocal determinism (person-environment-behavior)

Cognitive Developmental

* proposed by Jean Piget
* placed emphasis on: active learning, development in stages, and qualitive changes

What are the different types of data collection?

* Naturalistic/structured observation 
* Standardized test 
* interview/questionnaire 
* Database

Experimental design

* Random assignment of participants to groups 
* Experimental/control 
* Inferences about causes and effects allowed 

Experimental design: independent variable

a variable whose variation does not depend on that of another.

Experimental design: dependent variable

* Behavior that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable

Correlational design

* Does not reveal *casual* relationships 
* Strength of  relationship between two variables 
* A positive or negative association between two variables
* positive: linear (when one goes up so does the other)
* negative: inverse (variables move in opposite directions)

What are the different types of research strategies?

* longitudinal
* cross-sectional
* sequential

Longitudinal

* Study of individuals or groups over a long period of time 
* Start doing assessment of children at a certain age and follow their growth over time 
* Identify individual differences and determine how change occurs over time 
* Cons: 
* People drop out of the study
* Costly 

Cross-sectional

* Relatively short-term 
* Indications of possible age differences or age changes 
* Cohort age related differences due to grouping by age 
* Pros and Cons
* Pros:
* Gives the opportunity to compare children at different ages

Sequential

* Longitudinal and cross sectional 
* Allow for comparison of cohorts while incorporating some degree of individual differences 
* Cons
* Still have the longitudinal component

Research ethics

* American Psychological Association aims for the protection of human subjects via
* From harm/risk 
* Informed consent 
* Confidentiality/anonymity  
* Knowledge of results/debriefing
* Deception 
* Coercion

Epigenesis

Development in which an unorganized cell masses differentiate into organs and systems 

Conception

* **Zygote: A single cell formed through fertilization** 
* **23 pairs of chromosomes** 

Infertility

* Inability to conceive after 12 months 
* Treatment 
* Hormone therapy 

In Vitro Fertilization (IVT)

Egg + sperm combines in lab dish

What is the success rate of IVT?

25-30%

True or false: IVT can lead to multiple births

True

Twins

* **Identical Twins** 
* **Genes: 100%**
* **Environment: 100%**
* **Fraternal Twins** 
* **Genes: 50%**
* **Environment: 100%**
* **Non-twin siblings**
* **Genes: 50%**
* **Environment: Not 100% (cannot be determined)**

Example(s) of chromosomal abnormalities

Down syndrome

Down Syndrome

* Description: Extra chromosome causes mild to severe intellectual disability and physical abnormalities
* Treatment: Early intervention, infant stimulation, and special learning programs 

Example(s) of gene-linked abnormalities

* Cystic fibrosis
* Diabetes
* PKU
* Tay-Sachs

Cystic fibrosis

* Description: Glandular dysfunction that interferes with mucus production; breathing and digestion are hampered, resulting in a shortened life span
* Treatment: Physical and oxygen therapy, synthetic enzyme, and antibiotics; most individuals live to middle age

Diabetes

* Description: Body does not produce enough insulin, which causes abnormal metabolism of sugar 
* Treatment: Early onset can be fatal unless treated with insulin 

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

* Description: Metabolic disorder that, left untreated, causes intellectual disability
* Treatment: Special diet can result in average intelligence and normal life span 

Tay-Sachs

* Description: Deceleration of mental and physical development caused by an accumulation of lipids in the nervous system 
* Treatment: Medication and special diet are used, but death is likely by 5 years of age 

Epigenetic view

* Development is a result of ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity + environment

What are the three periods of prenatal development?

* Germinal
* Embryonic
* Fetal

Germinal

* First two weeks after conception 
* Creation of fertilized egg (zygote)
* Implantation-attachment of zygote to uterine wall after conception (11-15 days)
* One of the major tasks 
* Rapid cell division by the zygote 
* Differentiation of cells to form
* The germination period ends when the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall

Embryonic

* 3-8 weeks __after__ conception
* 3rd week the neural tube forms 
* Becomes the spinal cord + brain 
* Critical point in the developmental process
* Mass of cells referred to as embryo 
* Intensification of cell division, migration + differentiation 
* Cell support systems form 
* Organs appear (organogenesis)
* layers of cells (think of the prefixes in heart wall names)

Fetal

* 2 months __after__ conception until birth 
* Longest period of development 

First trimester

* Conception-4 weeks 
* Beginning development of spinal cord, nervous system, gastrointestinal system, heart, and lungs\]
* called a “zygote)
* 8 weeks 
* Face is forming with rudimentary eyes, ears, mouth, and tooth buds 
* Arms and legs are moving 
* Brain is forming 
* Fetal heartbeat is detectable with ultrasound 
* Is called an “embryo” 
* 12 weeks
* Can move arms, legs, fingers, and toes 
* Fingerprints are present
* Can smile, frown, suck, and swallow 
* Sex is distinguishable
* Can urinate 
* Is called a “fetus” 

Second trimester

* Middle three months 
* 16-24 weeks
* 16 weeks 
* Heartbeat is strong 
* Skin is thin, transparent 
* Downy hair (lanugo) covers body 
* Fingernails and toenails are forming 
* Has coordinated movements: is able to roll over in amniotic fluid 
* 20 weeks
* Heartbeat is audible with ordinary stethoscope 
* Sucks thumb 
* Hiccups 
* Hair, eyelashes, eyebrows are present 
* 24 weeks
* Point of viability!
* Skin is wrinkled and covered with protective coating (vernix caseosa)
* Eyes are open 
* Waste matter is collected in bowel 
* Has a strong grip

Third trimester

* 28 weeks
* Is adding body fat
* Is very active 
* Rudimentary breathing movements are present 
* 32 weeks 
* Has periods of sleep and wakefulness 
* Responds to sounds 
* May assume the birth position 


* 36 to 38 weeks 
* Sometimes can last till 40 weeks 
* Skin is less wrinkled 
* Vernix caseosa is thick and lanugo is mostly gone 
* Is less active
* Is gaining immunities from mother  

What are some factors that effect prenatal development?

Teratogens 

What are teratogens?

Substances that may cause physical or functional defects in the embryo or fetus 

What are some examples of teratogens?

* FASD
* Nicotine
* Cocaine
* Maternal diseases

What is the relation between prenatal development + toxic stress?

textbook?

Methods of child birth

* Lamaze 
* Natural process
* Since it is a natural childbirth, they discourage the use of interventions such as medications 
* Encourage the new mother to walk, move around, change positions, etc.all throughout childbirth 
* Advocate for the mother and baby to stay together after the birthing process
* Bradley 
* Emphasized that birth is a natural process 
* Claimed that women could also give birth without any pain medications 
* Diet + exercise is important for the delivery process 
* Leboyer 
* Emphasized a very comforting environment for the women to give birth to 
* Expressed that a water birth would be a gentler experience 

Techniques for child birth

* Labor coach 
* Prepared childbirth classes 
* Provide motivation to endure pain 
* Relaxation techniques 
* Breathing techniques 

Childbirth assistants

* Midwives (8%)
* Recent research concludes that for low-risk women, midwife-led care may decrease procedures during labor and increased satisfaction 
* No adverse outcomes found for midwife-led care 
* May decrease the amount of procedures used on new mothers 
* Doulas 
* Caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth 
* A good coach + support for mom, family, and the newborn

Stage 1 of labor

* Longest stage 
* Dilation and effacement 
* Latent phase: Contractions are relatively far apart and are not very comfortable 
* Active phase: Dilation of the cervix from 3-4 centimeters to 8 centimeters and contractions become closer and intense 
* Transition phase: Closely spaced and strong contractions that are painful 
* Lots of intensity 

Stage 2 of birth

* Birth of the baby 
* Usually head first, face down 
* Most desirable position 
* Allows for an easier childbirth experience 

Stage 3 of birth

* Delivery of the placenta and umbilical cord 

What are some examples of birth complications?

* anoxia
* c-section

Anoxia

* Loss of oxygen immediately surrounding birth 
* Cerebral palsy (cognitive or motor effects)

Optimal weight for newborn

6\.6-11 pounds

Relationship of LBW

* LBW- (5.5 pounds)
* VLBW- (3.5 pounds)
* ELBLW- (2 pounds)

APGAR test

* Assessed 1-5 minutes after birth
Heart rate
100-140 beats/minute
Respiratory effort
Good breathing w/normal crying
Muscle tone
Strong, active motion
Body color
Entire body pink
Reflex irritability
Coughing, sneezing, crying
7 or higher: healthy
3 or less: needs medical intervention

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment

* Responses to stimuli and reflexes within 24-36 hours 
* Items 
* Reflexes
* Motor abilities 
* Autonomic stability 
* Habituation
* Social interactive organization 
* Range of states 
* Regulation of states 

Basic states

* Deep (quiet) sleep 
* Eyes closed, regular breathing, no movement 
* Active sleep 
* Eyes closed, irregular breathing small movements 
* Drowsy sleep 
* Yawning 
* Quiet awake 
* Eyes open, regular breathing; no major movement 
* Alert, attentive
* Active alert (fussy) 
* Eyes open, movements 
* Crying 
* Vigorous movement, eyes partly or entirely closed 

Physical development

* Body size and proportions
* Appearance 
* Functioning of body systems
* Perceptual and motor abilities 
* Physical health 

What are the developmental principles?

* **Cephalocaudal**
* **Proximodistal**

**Cephalocaudal**

* Sequence in which the greatest growth occurs at the top (head), gradually working downward to the bottom 
* One of the first thing an infant can do is hold their own head up

**Proximodistal**

* Sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities 
* Example: Being able to turn from stomach to back 
* Slowly gain control of arms + legs 

Growth in early childhood

* Weight gain 4-5 pounds 
* Body fat declines 
* Girls more fatty tissue
* Boys more muscle tissue 

Growth in middle to late childhood

* Weight gain 5-7 pounds 
* Improved muscle tone 
* Changes in proportion 
* Starts in preschool years 

Neuroconstructivist View

* **Theory of brain development emphasizing** 
* **Biological processes and environmental conditions influence brain development** 
* **Brain has plasticity and its context dependent** 
* **Development of brain and child’s cognitive development closely linked** 
* **Main idea: nature + nurture** 

Early Experience + Brain Development

* Brain demonstrates both flexibility and resilience
* Infant’s brain waiting for experiences to determine how connections are made 
* Repeated experiences wire the brain 
* **From 3 to 6 years**
* **Most rapid growth occurs in areas involved in planning and organizing new actions and in maintaining attention to tasks** 
* **From 6 through puberty** 
* **Most dramatic growth in areas that play major roles in language and spatial relations** 

Neurons

* Nerve cells that process information at the cellular level

Components of neurons

* Axon-sends signals (transmitter) 
* Dendrite-receives signals (receiver)

Function of neurons

* Synapse-communication links bridged by neurotransmitter 

Synaptogenesis

* The creation of synapses

Myelination

* Process of coating axon with fatty substance (myelin) that enables communication between cells
* Fatty acids are crucial for the formation of myelin 
* No myelination= synapses can’t be created 
* Insulates axons and helps electrical signals travel faster down the axon
* Increases the speed of processing information 
* Example
* Extensive change in frontal lobes occurs during adolescence 

Changing brain structures

* From 3 to 6 years of age
* most rapid growth occurs in areas involved in planning and organizing new actions and in maintaining attention to tasks
* From 6 through puberty
* most dramatic growth in areas that play major roles in language and spatial relations

Sleep in infancy

* Newborns sleep 16 to 17 hours a day 
* Range from about 10 to 21 hours 
* Their sleep is not consecutive 

REM sleep

* Rapid Eye Movement 
* Eyes flutter beneath closed lids
* May promote brain development 
* Synaptogenesis occurs more frequently here 

Sleep and cognitive development

* Infants who sleep mostly at night appear to have higher levels of executive function at age 4 
* Poor quality of infant sleep may have negative effects 
* Lower attention regulation and more behavior problems at 3 to 4 years 
* Greater distractibility

Childhood sleeping

* Sleep impacts development 
* Recommend young children get 11 to 13 hours 
* Recommend 5-12 years get 10-12 hours 
* Negative outcomes of sleep problems: 
* In early childhood indicates attention problems in school and adolescence 
* In childhood more likely to have alcohol use in adolescence and early adulthood

What are some examples of malnutrition in infancy?

* marasmus
* kwashiorkor

Marasmus

* **a wasting away of body tissues in the infant’s first year, caused by severe protein-calorie deficiency**

Kwashiorkor

*  **a condition caused by a severe deficiency in protein in which the child’s abdomen and feet become swollen with water** 

Benefits of breastfeeding

* Strengthens immune system 
* Decreases respiratory illness, ear infections
* Decreases gastrointestinal disturbances 
* Decrease in probability of SIDS 
* Protection from allergies such as eczema 
* Decrease likelihood of obesity 
* Exclusively breast-fed less likely to develop juvenile diabetes 
* Have lower blood pressure as an adult 
* Lower blood pressure on average as adults 
* Cognitive development
* social/emotional 

Nutrition guidelines

* Nutrient-dense foods 
* Protein 
* Fruits 
* Vegetables 
* Grains 
* Dairy 

Weight + health issues

* Girls are more likely than boys to be overweight 
* Being overweight in childhood linked to being overweight as adult 
* Increase risk for many medical and psychological problems

Sensation

* The acquisition of information through the sensory organs and the transmission of that information  to the brain

Perception

* The attribution of meaning to sensations 

Habituation

* Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus 

Preference techniques

* Determine if infants can distinguish different stimuli 
* Measure time they attend to different stimuli 

Fantz Research on Pattern Perception

* Infants prefer patterned displays rather than non-patterned
* prefer to look at normal human face rather than one with scrambled features
* prefer to look at a bull’s-eye target or black-and-white stripes rather than a plain circle

What are the concepts of perceptual constancy?

* size constancy
* shape constancy
* color constancy

Size constancy

recognition that object remains the same shape even through orientation changes

Shape constancy

recognition that object remains the same shape even through orientation changes

Color constancy

changes in light + shadow do not change the color