Exame 2

physics branch that studies energy & its transformations 

Thermodynamics

4 factors that speed up diffusion rate

• higher temp, concentration, & SA

• lower viscosity & solute

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy Conservation:

• Energy cant be created/destroyed 

• It can only be transferred/transformed

Result of more reactions breaking than building up

↑ Disorder

Law that states energy transformations ↑ disorder of universe

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Word for disorder (second law of thermodynamics)

Entropy

 Ultimate source of energy in universe 

Sunlight energy

What is the general energy transformation order in our universe

Light → Glucose → ATP → motion → heat

• energy of motion/work & 2 examples

• energy of storage/rest & 2 examples

• Kinetic Energy: light & heat

• Potential Energy: chemical glucose & ATP

What ATP stands for:

Adenosine Triphosphate 

• What kind of organic molecule is ATP?

  • What is it made up of?

• Nucleotide:

  • 1 adenine-nitrogenous base

  • 3 phosphate groups

allows for intake O2 (goes through blood stream into body cells) release Co2

Breathing

Series of reactions by cells that sometimes use O2 & glucose to make ATP usable energy 

Cellular Respiration

Aerobic vs Anaerobic Cellular Resp

• use or not oxygen?

• how much ATP produced from 1 glucose molecule

• Aerobic:

  • uses O2 ✅

  • 36 NET ATP

• Anaerobic:

  • does not use O2 🚫

  • 2 NET ATP

How do Aerobic and Photosynthesis relate?

Opposites:

• aerobic- uses glucose & O2 to make CO2, H2O, & ATP

• photo- uses CO2, H2O, & light energy to make glucose & O2

Reaction where electrons moved from one molecule to another & 2 example processes

• Redox Reactions

• photosynth & cellular resp

gain of electron vs loss of electrons in redox reactions

• oxidation is loss

• reduction is gain

  • *(oil rig)

Which molecule do electrons belong to in redox reactions

H+ (hydrogen)

Explain how Combustion is Redox

• Methane oxidized → CO2 (loss H+ & electrons)

• Oxygen reduced → H2O (gain H+ & electrons)

Explain how Aerobic Respiration is Redox

• Glucose oxidized → CO2 (loss H+ & electrons)

• Oxygen reduced → H2O (gain H+ & electrons)

• What general reaction allows for production of ATP

  • In Glycolysis & Krebs?

  • In ETC & redox reactions?

• Phospholyration

  • Substrate Level Phospholyration

  • Oxidative Phospholyration

What are the 5 major steps in Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolosis

2. Aerobic Respiration:

   1. Bridge Reaction

   2. Krebs Cycle

   3. Electron Transport Chain

split 1 glucose into 2 pyruvic acids

Glycolosis

Glycolosis:

• location

• o2 requirement?

• uses

• products

• Cytoplasm

• No

• 2 ATP

  • 4 ATP (2 NET)

  • 2 Pyruvate

  • 2 NADH

• temporary electron carrier

• what does it exist as?

• how does it convert?

• NADH

• NAD+

• gains electron → NADH

release their electrons in final step and what process

• Electron Carriers

• Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Bridge Reaction:

• location

• converts

• produces

• Mitochondrial Envelope 💌

• 2 pyruvate → 2 acetyl CoA

  • 0 ATP

  • 2 CO₂

  • 2 NADH

Krebs Cycle:

• location

• input

• products (2 cycles)

• Mitochondrial Matrix

• 2 Acetyl CoA →

  • 2 ATP

  • 2 FADH₂

  • 4 CO₂

  • 6 NADH

Electron Transport Chain (ETC):

• location

• input

• output

• Cristae 💎

• input-

  • 10 NADH (each 3 ATP→30 ATP)

  • 2 FADH (each 2 ATP→4 ATP)

• output-

  • 34 ATP (32 NET bc 2 used to ship NADH)

Final H+ electron acceptor in ETC and what it produces

• O2

• makes H2O when H+ and O2 electrons combine

ETC series of integral proteins in the inner membrane of mitochondrion where electrons pass through to release NADH & FADH’s electrons

Cytochrome Complex

Anaerobic Cellular Resp:

• need O2 & mitochondria or no?

• location

• converts

• 2 steps

• neither

• cytoplasm

• 1 glucose → 2 ATP

• Glycolosis & Fermentation (Lactic or Alcohol)

Anaerobic Resp’s Glycolosis:

• converts

• output

• 1 glucose → 2 pyruvate

• 2 NET ATP, & 2 NADH

Alcohol Fermentation

• converts

• output

• occurs in what 2

• 2 pyruvate → 2 ethanol

• 2 CO2

• yeast & plants 🌱🍞

In Alcohol and Lactic Acid Fermentation, what give back electrons?

2 NADH

Lactic Acid Fermentation

• converts

• occurs in what 2

• 2 pyruvate → 2 lactic acids

  • bacteria &

  • animal muscle cells (when no O2)

High ATP & citric acid levels inhibit what enzyme, and resumes when they drop

Phosphofructokinase 🍋

Who coined term cell

Robert Hooke

Who invented first light microscope, seeing animalcules (protists)

Anton von Leeuvewnhoek: 

3 components of Cell Theory

All cells:

1. are the basic units of life

2. comprise all organisms

3. all arise from preexisting ones (division)

Microscope that  uses glass lenses, light, & limited mag of 40-1,000x 

Light Microscope

• Uses magnetic lenses & beam of electrons 

• Great magnification +300k 

• Allows to see small cells & their structure

Electron Microscope

Type of Electron Microscope that allows to see thin cell sections 

Transmission (TEM)

Type of Electron Microscope that allows to see external surface of cells 

Scanning (SEM)

Cells are measured in?

Micrometers μm

How big are prokaryotic cells (i.e. cyanobacteria)

1-10 μm 

How big are eukaryotic cells (i.e. protists, fungi, plants, animals)

10-100 μm 

simple cells with unbound DNA

Prokaryotic Cells

Where is DNA found in prokaryotes

cytoplasm’s “nucleoid region”

Fluid of cell

Cytoplasm

phospholipid bilayer that regulates what moves in/out

Cell Membrane

What are prokaryotic cell walls made of for protection?

Peptidoglycan

Jelly like coating & what hair like structure attaches to it

Capsules; pilli

Tiny structures for protein synthesis

Ribosomes

Long whip like tails for movement

Flagella

Larger more complex cells with highly organized many organelles 

Eukaryotic Cells

double membrane covering that covers some cells

Envelope

Structure that provides shape & structural support for cell

Cell Wall

Cell walls are made up of what in

• algae & plants vs

• fungi & slime molds

• cellulose

• chitin

Structure that all cells have

Cell Membrane

3 functions of cell membrane

• regulates move in/out cell

• give surface for chem reactions

• surrounds cytoplasm to protect from external enviro

How thick is a cell membrane

7.5-10 nm thin

Plasma membrane component that:

• acts as a barrier that separates cytoplasm from extracellular fluid 

Phospholipids

Plasma membrane component that:

• is a transport protein

integral proteins

Plasma membrane component that:

• is a protein for receiving chemical signals

peripheral protein

Plasma membrane component that:

• is used for attachment to other cells or surfaces 

Carbohydrates

Plasma membrane component that:

• holds membrane together with flexibility 

Cholesterol

carbs attached to phospholipids 

Glycolipids

carbs that attach to integral proteins 

Glycoprotein

Control center of the cell that holds DNA

Nucleus

Fluid in nucleus

Nucleoplasm

Structure inside nucleus that produces ribosomes

Nucleolus

fluid in cell that has water & dissolved solutes 

Cytoplasm

protein matrix/network that runs through cytoplasm 

Cytoskeleton

Cytoplasm & cytoskeleton are found in what kind of cells?

all cells

hollow tube of tubulin protein used to separate DNA cell division 

Microtubule

thin strips of protein actin used to move substances thru cytoplasm

Microfilaments

rope like fibers of keratin protein to protect against trauma 

Intermediate Fibers

dense network of fine/wispy proteins that anchor cell structures in cytoplasm

Microtabeculae

Membrane bound for storage

Vacuoles

Contractile vs Central vs Fat Vacuole

• Contractile vacuole: in protozoans, expels/stores water

• Central vacuole: in plants, stores water & starch

• Fat vacuole: in animals to store triglycerides

site of cellular resp to convert glucose to ATP

Mitochondria

What 3 cell structures have an envelope w inner & outer membranes?

• Chloroplasts

• Nucleus

• Mitochondria

Fluid in mitochondrion

Matrix

Folds in inner mitochondrial membrane

Cristae

Site of photosynthesis in plant & algae

Chloroplast

Energy rich fluid in chloroplasts

Stroma

Chloroplast membranous disk covered by light trapping pigments

Thylakoid Disks

Chloroplast stack of thylakoid disks

Granum

Tiniest cell structure in ALL cells, site of protein synthesis

Ribosomes

What are the 2 locations in Ribosomes?

large & small subunits

Free Ribosomes vs Bound Ribosomes

• free: attached to cytoskeleton proteins

• bound: attached to ER

What is between the 2 subunits of Ribosomes, translating to build protein

RNA threads 🧵

Membrane bound sacs of hydrolytic enzymes

Lysosomes

digest food & waste, break down damaged cells, & destroy foreign antigens

Lysosomes

Membrane bound sacs of catalytic enzymes & where found

Peroxisomes (all eukaryotes)

breaks down hydrogen peroxide in water & oxygen

peroxisomes

Systems of wavy membranous channels with compartments that form vesicles 

ER~ Endoplasmic Reticulum

Has ribosomes to process & package protein

Rough ER

Lacks ribosomes for lipid synthesis, calcium storage, & detoxification

Smooth ER