Neoplasia Part Two Lecture Notes

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering the mechanisms of metastasis, epidemiology, molecular biology, hereditary syndromes, and clinical staging of neoplasms discussed in the lecture.

Metastasis

The process whereby malignant cancer cells spread from their original site of growth to other parts of the body, forming secondary tumors that are anatomically and functionally separate from the primary tumor.

Direct Seeding

A method of metastasis that occurs when cancer cells spread through direct extension into a nearby natural cavity or body field, commonly seen in ovarian cancer that extends into the peritoneal cavity.

Lymphatic Spread

This is the predominant route for the initial dispersion of carcinomas, where cancer cells migrate through the lymphatic system and subsequently disseminate to adjacent lymph nodes, often indicating disease progression.

Sentinel Lymph Node

The primary lymph node that receives lymphatic flow from a specific tumor site; its histopathological status is critical in determining the extent of regional metastasis and informs treatment strategies.

Hematogenous Spread

The dissemination of cancerous cells through the bloodstream, characteristic of sarcomas and certain carcinomas; these cells typically lodge in the first capillary bed they encounter, such as those in the liver or lungs.

Batson Plexus

A network of veins within the vertebral column that can provide a pathway for cancer, particularly from the prostate or rectal area, to metastasize to the spinal structures.

Angiogenesis

The biological process by which tumors induce the formation of new blood vessels through the secretion of growth factors, ensuring an adequate supply of nutrients and oxygen necessary for tumor growth and metastasis.

Desmoplastic Response

A fibrous tissue response surrounding a tumor, resulting in a hardened stroma; this phenomenon can alter the physical characteristics of tumors, causing them to appear contracted or take on a star-like shape.

Incidence

The measure indicating the frequency of new cases of a disease diagnosed within a specified time frame, typically expressed as cases per $100,000$ population per year.

Prevalence

The total number of instances of a disease present in a specified population at a given time, providing insight into the overall burden of disease in that community.

Mortality Rate

The quantity of deaths resulting from a particular disease in a defined population over a specified time period, often used to gauge the lethality of specific conditions.

$$HTLV-1$$

Human T-cell Leukemia Virus type 1, a retroviral infectious agent strongly linked to the development of adult T-cell leukemia and lymphoma.

High-Risk HPV

The specific strains of Human Papillomavirus, particularly subtypes $16$ and $18$, associated with the pathogenesis of various carcinomas including cervical, anal, and oropharyngeal cancers.

$$HHV-8$$

Human Herpesvirus 8, which is linked to Kaposi sarcoma, especially prevalent in individuals with HIV/AIDS as part of the spectrum of opportunistic infections.

Aspergillus Aflatoxin B1

A potent mycotoxin produced by the Aspergillus species; recognized for its association with hepatocellular carcinoma and implicated in the induction of $p53$ gene mutations.

Schistosoma Hematobium

A parasitic infection causing chronic inflammation of the bladder, significantly increasing the risk of developing bladder cancer, particularly in endemic regions.

Vinyl Chloride

A synthetic chemical utilized in the production of PVC, known to be linked to a specific form of hepatic angiosarcoma, despite the final form of PVC being inert.

Asbestos

A naturally occurring fibrous mineral with fire-retardant properties, associated with chronic lung irritation and the development of malignant mesothelioma, as well as lung carcinoma.

Radon

A naturally occurring radioactive gas formed from the decay of uranium, which poses a significant risk factor for lung cancer, especially among miners exposed in confined spaces.

Initiator

A type of carcinogen that can cause permanent DNA damage without alone leading to cell proliferation; it requires further events to promote cancer development.

Promoter

An agent or event, such as chronic inflammation, that enhances the replication of mutated cells, facilitating the accumulation of additional mutations necessary for cancer progression.

Passenger Mutations

Mutations that occur within a cancer cell's genome that do not confer any growth advantage and do not directly lead to malignancy.

Warburg Effect

The phenomenon whereby cancer cells preferentially utilize aerobic glycolysis even in the presence of sufficient oxygen, consuming glucose to generate energy for rapid cellular growth.

Philadelphia Chromosome

A specific genetic aberration resulting from a translocation between chromosomes $9$ and $22$ (designated as $t(9;22)$), leading to the formation of the $BCR-ABL$ fusion oncogene typical in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML).

Burkitt Lymphoma Translocation

A genetic alteration characterized by a translocation between chromosomes $8$ and $14$ ($t(8;14)$), placing the $c-MYC$ oncogene adjacent to the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus, a hallmark of Burkitt's lymphoma.

Two-Hit Theory

The principle asserting that in the case of autosomal recessive tumor-suppressor genes, both alleles must be inactivated to predispose an individual to cancer development; those with hereditary syndromes often carry one defective allele from birth.

$$p53$$

Known as the 'guardian of the genome', this pivotal tumor suppressor protein plays a critical role in regulating the cell cycle and inducing apoptosis in response to DNA damage.

$RB$ Gene

A key tumor suppressor gene that regulates the cell cycle transition from the $G_1$ phase to the $S$ phase, its loss is commonly implicated in retinoblastoma and osteosarcoma.

Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1)

A genetic disorder characterized by the development of neurofibromas (benign tumors on nerves) and cafe au lait spots (flat, brown birthmarks resembling coffee with milk).

Neurofibromatosis Type 2 (NF2)

A distinct genetic disorder manifested by the growth of bilateral acoustic neuromas (tumors on the eighth cranial nerve), vestibular schwannomas, and meningiomas.

Microsatellite Instability (MSI)

A condition indicative of errors in the DNA mismatch repair system, leading to variability in the length of short repetitive DNA sequences, often seen in certain types of cancer.

MEN 1 Syndrome

A hereditary condition known as Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type 1, presenting with triad of Pituitary adenomas, Parathyroid hyperplasia, and Pancreatic islet cell tumors.

MEN 2A Syndrome

A hereditary condition known as Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type 2A characterized by medullary thyroid carcinoma coupled with pheochromocytoma and parathyroid hyperplasia.

Xeroderma Pigmentosum

An autosomal recessive disorder resulting from a defect in the DNA repair mechanism of UV-induced damage, leading to a significantly increased risk of skin cancers.

Fanconi Anemia

A rare genetic disorder associated with impaired DNA cross-link repair mechanisms, resulting in bone marrow failure (aplastic anemia) and a heightened risk of acute myeloid leukemia.

Cachexia

A multi-systemic syndrome marked by progressive loss of body fat and lean muscle, accompanied by systemic inflammation, catabolism, and accompanied by anorexia and anemia in cancer patients.

Paraneoplastic Syndrome

A group of clinical syndromes in cancer patients that arise from substances secreted by tumors or as an immune response to the tumor, which cannot be explained by the tumor's local effects.

SIADH

Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone secretion; often linked with small cell lung carcinoma, leading to water retention and hyponatremia due to excessive ADH secretion.

Carcinoid Syndrome

A clinical syndrome occurring from the secretion of bioactive substances like serotonin by carcinoid tumors, leading to symptoms such as flushing, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.

Trousseau Phenomenon

A paraneoplastic syndrome involving the occurrence of migratory venous thrombosis, which is classically associated with pancreatic cancer and serves as a marker for potential malignancy.

Tumor Staging

The process of evaluating the extent of cancer in the body, following the TNM classification system: the size of the Primary Tumor ($T$), the presence of regional lymph Node involvement ($N$), and any evidence of Metastasis ($M$).

Tumor Grade

An assessment of the histopathological differentiation of tumor cells, which can range from well-differentiated (low grade) tumors, indicating a more favorable outcome, to poorly differentiated or anaplastic (high grade) tumors, which correlate with aggressive behavior.

Microarray Analysis

A high-throughput laboratory technique employed to monitor the expression levels of thousands of genes simultaneously, comparing cancerous tissue to normal tissue to unveil mutations or overexpressed genes.

$$PSA$$

Prostate Specific Antigen, a serum biomarker predominantly used to screen and monitor prostate cancer status, particularly for recurrence or response to treatment.

$$CA-125$$

A serum tumor marker primarily associated with ovarian cancer; elevated levels may indicate the presence of malignancy or monitor treatment response.